阅读说明：本技术 涉及酸和/或碱的化学反应装置，以及相关的系统和方法 (Chemical reaction apparatus involving acids and/or bases, and related systems and methods ) 是由 姜一民 利亚·埃利斯 安德烈斯·巴代尔 艾萨克·W·梅特卡夫 于 2020-03-13 设计创作，主要内容包括：一般地描述了涉及酸和/或碱的化学反应装置,以及相关的系统和方法。(Chemical reaction apparatus involving acids and/or bases, and related systems and methods, are generally described.)

1. A method, comprising:

operating the reactor in a first mode;

wherein the first mode comprises:

generating a base from the first electrode;

generating an acid from a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode in the reactor; and

collecting the acid and/or the base.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising reacting the collected acid and/or base in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction.

3. A method, comprising:

operating the reactor in a first mode;

wherein the first mode comprises:

generating a base from the first electrode;

generating an acid from a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode in the reactor;

collecting the acid and/or the base; and

the collected acid and/or base is reacted in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction.

4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the first mode comprises generating oxygen from the second electrode.

5. The method of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the first mode comprises generating hydrogen gas from the first electrode.

6. A method, comprising:

operating the reactor in a first mode;

wherein the first mode comprises:

generating a base and hydrogen gas from the first electrode;

generating acid and oxygen from a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode in the reactor; and

allowing the oxygen gas to diffuse and/or be transported to the first electrode and/or allowing the hydrogen gas to diffuse and/or be transported to the second electrode; and

allowing the oxygen gas to be reduced through the first electrode and/or allowing the hydrogen gas to be oxidized through the second electrode.

7. The method of claim 6, further comprising collecting the acid and/or the base.

8. The method according to any one of claims 6 to 7, further comprising reacting the collected acid and/or base in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction.

9. The method of any one of claims 4 to 8, wherein generating an acid from the second electrode and generating oxygen from the second electrode comprises oxidizing water through the second electrode to generate oxygen and an acid.

10. The method of any one of claims 5 to 9, wherein generating base from the first electrode and generating hydrogen gas from the first electrode comprises reducing water through the first electrode to generate hydrogen gas and base.

11. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising collecting the acid.

12. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising collecting the base.

13. A method according to any one of the preceding claims, comprising reacting the collected acid in chemical dissolution.

14. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising reacting the collected base in a precipitation reaction.

15. The method of any one of the preceding claims, further comprising storing the acid and/or the base.

16. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising storing the acid.

17. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising storing the base.

18. The method of any one of the preceding claims, further comprising operating the reactor in a second mode, wherein the polarity of the reactor in the second mode is opposite compared to the polarity of the reactor in the first mode.

19. The method of claim 18, wherein the cost of electricity for operating the reactor in the first mode is a first cost and the availability of electricity for operating the reactor in the first mode is a first availability, wherein the cost of electricity for operating the reactor in the second mode is a second cost and the availability of electricity for operating the reactor in the second mode is a second availability, and wherein the second cost is greater than the first cost and/or the first availability is greater than the second availability.

20. The method of any one of claims 18 to 19, wherein the second mode comprises adding a stored base to the reactor near the second electrode.

21. The method of any one of claims 18 to 20, wherein the second mode comprises oxidizing the stored alkali in the vicinity of the second electrode to produce oxygen.

22. The method of any one of claims 18 to 21, wherein the second mode comprises adding a stored acid to the reactor in the vicinity of the first electrode.

23. The method of any one of claims 18 to 22, wherein the second mode comprises reducing the stored acid in the vicinity of the first electrode to produce hydrogen.

24. A method according to any one of claims 5 to 23, comprising oxidising the hydrogen gas by the second electrode.

25. The method of any one of claims 5 to 24, comprising oxidizing the hydrogen gas by the second electrode to produce an acid.

26. The method of any one of claims 5 to 25, wherein the hydrogen gas is allowed to diffuse from near the first electrode to near the second electrode.

27. The method of any one of claims 5 to 26, wherein the hydrogen gas is transported from the vicinity of the first electrode to the vicinity of the second electrode.

28. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, 5, and 9 to 27, wherein the method does not produce oxygen.

29. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the method does not produce net hydrogen.

30. The method of any one of claims 4 to 27 and 29, comprising reducing the oxygen gas by the first electrode.

31. The method of any one of claims 4 to 27 and 29 to 30, comprising reducing the oxygen gas by the first electrode to produce a base.

32. The method of any one of claims 4 to 27 and 29 to 31, wherein the oxygen gas is allowed to diffuse from near the second electrode to near the first electrode.

33. The method of any one of claims 4 to 27 and 29 to 32, wherein the oxygen is delivered from near the second electrode to near the first electrode.

34. The method of any one of claims 1 to 4 and 9 to 33, wherein the method does not produce hydrogen.

35. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the method does not produce net oxygen.

36. The method of any one of claims 2 to 5 and 8 to 35, wherein the chemical dissolution comprises chemical dissolution of a metal, metal alloy, metalloid, metal salt, metal oxide, and/or silicate.

37. The method of claim 36, wherein the metal and/or the metal alloy comprises iron, ferrous based alloys, stainless steel, non-ferrous metals, non-ferrous alloys, aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, zinc, tin, and/or coin alloys.

38. The method of any one of claims 36 to 37, wherein the metal oxide comprises calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, strontium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium oxide, lead oxide, silica, and/or aluminum oxide.

39. The method of any one of claims 36 to 38, wherein the metal salt comprises a metal carbonate.

40. The method of claim 39, wherein the metal carbonate comprises calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, barium carbonate, strontium carbonate, manganese carbonate, iron carbonate, cobalt carbonate, zinc carbonate, cadmium carbonate, lead carbonate, and/or nickel carbonate.

41. The method of any one of claims 2 to 5 and 8 to 35, wherein the precipitation reaction comprises precipitating a metal hydroxide.

42. The method of claim 41, wherein the metal hydroxide comprises calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, barium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, manganese hydroxide, iron hydroxide, cobalt hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, cadmium hydroxide, lead hydroxide, and/or nickel hydroxide.

43. The method according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the concentration of the acid is greater than or equal to 0.00001M.

44. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the concentration of the acid is greater than or equal to 1M.

45. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the concentration of the acid is less than or equal to 10M.

46. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the concentration of the base is greater than or equal to 0.00001M.

47. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the concentration of the base is greater than or equal to 1M.

48. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the concentration of the base is less than or equal to 10M.

49. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the pH near the second electrode is less than or equal to 6.

50. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the pH near the first electrode is greater than or equal to 8.

51. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the nernst potential at the second electrode is greater than or equal to-0.4V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

52. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the nernst potential at the second electrode is greater than or equal to 0.8V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

53. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to 0.8V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

54. The method of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to-0 _4V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

55. A process as claimed in any one of claims 2 to 5 and 8 to 54, in which operating the reactor in the first mode is intermittent and reacting the collected acid and/or base in chemical dissolution and/or in precipitation is continuous.

56. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising adding a near neutral input solution to the reactor.

57. The method of claim 56, wherein the near neutral input solution comprises a salt.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein the salt comprises an alkali metal sulfate, an alkali metal chlorate, an alkali metal halide, an alkali metal nitrate, an alkali metal perchlorate, an alkali metal acetate, an alkali metal nitrite, and/or an alkali metal triflate.

59. A method according to any one of the preceding claims, comprising reacting the collected base in chemical dissolution.

60. The method of any one of the preceding claims, comprising reacting the collected acid in a precipitation reaction.

61. A system, comprising:

a first electrode;

a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode; and

a device configured to collect acidic output near the second electrode and/or basic output near the first electrode.

62. A system, comprising:

a first electrode;

a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode;

a first device configured to collect acidic output near the second electrode and/or basic output near the first electrode; and

a second apparatus configured to react the collected acidic output and/or the collected basic output.

63. The system of any one of claims 61-62, wherein the first electrode is configured to produce a base and/or hydrogen gas.

64. The system of any one of claims 61-63, wherein the second electrode is configured to generate an acid and/or oxygen.

65. The system of any one of claims 61 to 64, wherein the system is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse and/or be delivered to the first electrode and/or allow hydrogen to diffuse and/or be delivered to the second electrode.

66. The system of any one of claims 61-65, wherein the system is configured to allow the oxygen gas to be reduced through the first electrode and/or allow the hydrogen gas to be oxidized through the second electrode.

67. A system, comprising:

a first electrode configured to generate a base and hydrogen gas; and

a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode and configured to generate an acid and oxygen;

wherein the system is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse and/or be delivered to the first electrode and/or allow hydrogen to diffuse and/or be delivered to the second electrode; and

wherein the system is configured to allow the oxygen gas to be reduced through the first electrode and/or the hydrogen gas to be oxidized through the second electrode.

68. The system of claim 67, further comprising a device configured to collect acidic output near the second electrode and/or basic output near the first electrode.

69. The system of any one of claims 61 to 68, further comprising a separator configured to allow oxygen gas produced at the second electrode to diffuse to the first electrode and/or hydrogen gas produced at the first electrode to diffuse to the second electrode.

70. The system of any one of claims 61, 63 to 66, and 68 to 69, further comprising a second device configured to react said collected acidic output and/or said collected basic output in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction.

71. The system of any one of claims 62 to 66 and 70, wherein said second device is configured to react said collected acidic output and/or said collected basic output in chemical dissolution.

72. The system of any one of claims 62 to 66 and 70 to 71, wherein the second device is configured to react the collected acidic output and/or the collected basic output in a precipitation reaction.

73. The system of any one of claims 61-66 and 69-72, wherein the second electrode is configured to generate an acid.

74. The system of any one of claims 61-66 and 69-73, wherein the second electrode is configured to generate oxygen.

75. The system of any one of claims 61-66 and 69-74, wherein the first electrode is configured to generate a base.

76. The system of any one of claims 61-66 and 69-75, wherein the first electrode is configured to produce hydrogen.

77. The system of any one of claims 64-76, wherein the system is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse to the first electrode.

78. The system of any one of claims 63-77, wherein the system is configured to allow hydrogen gas to diffuse to the second electrode.

79. The system of any one of claims 64-78, wherein the system is configured to allow the oxygen to be reduced through the first electrode.

80. The system of any one of claims 63-79, wherein the system is configured to allow the hydrogen gas to be oxidized through the second electrode.

81. The system of any one of claims 61 to 80, wherein said device is configured to collect said acidic output in the vicinity of said second electrode.

82. The system of any one of claims 61-81, wherein the device is configured to collect the alkaline output near the first electrode.

83. The system of any one of claims 61 to 82, comprising a device configured to store the acid and/or the base.

84. The system of any one of claims 61-83, comprising a device configured to store the acid.

85. The system of any one of claims 61 to 84, comprising a device configured to store the base.

86. The system of any one of claims 61 to 85, wherein the system is configured to enable addition of a base in the vicinity of the second electrode.

87. The system of any one of claims 61-86, wherein the system is configured to oxidize an alkali to produce oxygen through the second electrode.

88. The system of any one of claims 61-87, wherein the system is configured to enable addition of an acid in the vicinity of the first electrode.

89. The system of any one of claims 61-88, wherein the system is configured to reduce an acid through the second electrode to produce hydrogen gas.

90. The system of any one of claims 63-89, wherein the system is configured to oxidize the hydrogen gas to produce an acid via the second electrode.

91. The system of any one of claims 63-90, wherein the system is configured to allow the hydrogen gas to be transported from near the first electrode to near the second electrode.

92. The system of any one of claims 61-66, 69-73, 75-86, and 88-91, wherein the system is configured to produce no oxygen.

93. The system of any one of claims 61-92, wherein the system is configured to produce no net hydrogen.

94. The system of any one of claims 64-91 and 93, wherein the system is configured to reduce the oxygen gas through the first electrode to produce a base.

95. The system of any one of claims 64-91 and 93-94, wherein the system is configured to allow the oxygen to be transported from near the second electrode to near the first electrode.

96. The system of any one of claims 61-66, 69-75, 77-88, and 90-95, wherein the system is configured to produce no hydrogen.

97. The system of any one of claims 61-96, wherein the system is configured to produce no net oxygen.

98. A method, comprising:

producing a base and a dihalide in a first reactor;

generating an acid in a second reactor;

collecting the acid;

collecting the base;

chemical dissolution with the acid and/or the base; and

performing a precipitation reaction with the acid and/or the base.

99. The method of claim 98, comprising generating hydrogen in the first reactor.

100. The process of any one of claims 98 to 99, comprising feeding neutral pH alkali metal halide by-product from the precipitation reaction into the first reactor.

101. The method of any one of claims 98 to 100, comprising storing the acid and/or the base.

102. The method of any one of claims 98-101, wherein the chemical dissolution comprises chemical dissolution of a metal, metal alloy, metalloid, metal salt, metal oxide, and/or silicate.

103. The method of claim 102, wherein the metal and/or the metal alloy comprises iron, ferrous based alloys, stainless steel, non-ferrous metals, non-ferrous alloys, aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, zinc, tin, and/or coin alloys.

104. The method of any one of claims 102-103, wherein the metal oxide comprises calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, strontium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium oxide, lead oxide, silicon dioxide, and/or aluminum oxide.

105. The method of any one of claims 102-104, wherein the metal salt comprises a metal carbonate.

106. The method of claim 105, wherein the metal carbonate comprises calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, barium carbonate, strontium carbonate, manganese carbonate, iron carbonate, cobalt carbonate, zinc carbonate, cadmium carbonate, lead carbonate, and/or nickel carbonate.

107. The method of any one of claims 98 to 106, wherein the precipitation reaction comprises precipitating a metal hydroxide.

108. The method of claim 107, wherein the metal hydroxide comprises calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, barium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, manganese hydroxide, iron hydroxide, cobalt hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, cadmium hydroxide, lead hydroxide, and/or nickel hydroxide.

109. The method of any one of claims 98-108, wherein the concentration of the acid is greater than or equal to 0.1M.

110. The method of any one of claims 98-109, wherein the concentration of the acid is greater than or equal to 1M.

111. The method of any one of claims 98-110, wherein the concentration of the acid is less than or equal to 12M.

112. The method of any one of claims 98-111, wherein the concentration of the base is greater than or equal to 0.1M.

113. The method of any one of claims 98-112, wherein the concentration of the base is greater than or equal to 1M.

114. The method of any one of claims 98-113, wherein the concentration of the base is less than or equal to 25M.

115. The process of any one of claims 98 to 114, wherein the pH near the second reactor is less than or equal to 6.

116. The process of any one of claims 98 to 115, wherein the pH near the first reactor is greater than or equal to 8.

117. The method of any one of claims 98-116, wherein the first reactor comprises a second electrode, and the nernst potential at the second electrode is greater than or equal to 1.36V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

118. The process of any one of claims 98 to 117, wherein said first reactor comprises a second electrode and said dihalide is produced by said second electrode.

119. The method of any one of claims 98 to 118, wherein the first reactor comprises a first electrode, and the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to 0.8V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

120. The method of any one of claims 98 to 118, wherein the first reactor comprises a first electrode, and the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to 0.4V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

121. The method of any one of claims 98 to 118, wherein the first reactor comprises a first electrode, and the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to-0.41V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

122. The method of any one of claims 98 to 118, wherein the first reactor comprises a first electrode, and the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to-0.82V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

123. The method of any one of claims 98 to 122, wherein the first reactor comprises a first electrode and the base is produced by the first electrode.

124. The method of any one of claims 98 to 123, wherein the second reactor is a chemical reactor or a fuel cell.

125. The process of any one of claims 98 to 124, wherein the second reactor is H₂/Cl₂A fuel cell.

126. The method of any one of claims 98 to 125, comprising performing the chemical dissolution with the acid.

127. The method of any one of claims 98 to 126, comprising performing the chemical dissolution with the base.

128. The method of any one of claims 98 to 127, comprising performing the precipitation reaction with the acid.

129. The method of any one of claims 98 to 128, comprising performing the precipitation reaction with the base.

130. A system, comprising:

a first reactor configured to produce a base, a dihalide, and hydrogen;

a second reactor configured to generate an acid;

a first device configured to collect the acid in proximity to the second reactor and to perform a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction with the acid; and

a second device configured to collect the base proximate the first reactor and perform a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction with the base.

131. The system of claim 130, wherein the system is configured to feed neutral pH alkali metal halide byproducts from the precipitation reaction into the first reactor.

132. The system of any one of claims 130 to 131, wherein the system is configured to store the acid and/or the base.

133. The system of any one of claims 130 to 132, wherein the chemical dissolution comprises chemical dissolution of a metal, metal alloy, metalloid, metal salt, metal oxide, and/or silicate.

134. The method of claim 133, wherein the metal and/or the metal alloy comprises iron, ferrous based alloys, stainless steel, non-ferrous metals, non-ferrous alloys, aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, zinc, tin, and/or coin alloys.

135. The method of any one of claims 1.33-134, wherein the metal oxide comprises calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, strontium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium oxide, lead oxide, silicon dioxide, and/or aluminum oxide.

136. The method of any one of claims 133 to 135 wherein the metal salt comprises a metal carbonate.

137. The system of claim 136, wherein the metal carbonate comprises calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, barium carbonate, strontium carbonate, manganese carbonate, iron carbonate, cobalt carbonate, zinc carbonate, cadmium carbonate, lead carbonate, and/or nickel carbonate.

138. The system of any one of claims 130 to 137, wherein the precipitation reaction comprises precipitating a metal hydroxide.

139. The system of claim 138, wherein the metal hydroxide comprises calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, barium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, manganese hydroxide, iron hydroxide, cobalt hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, cadmium hydroxide, lead hydroxide, and/or nickel hydroxide.

140. The system of any one of claims 130-139, wherein the concentration of the acid is greater than or equal to 0.1M.

141. The system of any one of claims 130-140, wherein the concentration of the acid is greater than or equal to 1M.

142. The system of any one of claims 130 to 141, wherein the concentration of the acid is less than or equal to 12M.

143. The system of any one of claims 130-142, wherein the concentration of the base is greater than or equal to 0.1M.

144. The system of any one of claims 130-143, wherein the concentration of the base is greater than or equal to 1M.

145. The system of any one of claims 130 to 144, wherein the concentration of the base is less than or equal to 25M.

146. The system of any one of claims 130-145, wherein the first device is configured to perform the chemical dissolution with the acid.

147. The system of any one of claims 130 to 146, wherein the first device is configured to perform the precipitation reaction with the acid.

148. The system of any one of claims 130 to 147, wherein the second device is configured to perform the chemical dissolution with the base.

149. The system of any one of claims 130 to 148, wherein said second device is configured to perform said precipitation reaction with said base.

Technical Field

Chemical reaction apparatus involving acids and/or bases, and related systems and methods, are generally described.

Disclosure of Invention

Chemical reaction apparatus involving acids and/or bases, and related systems and methods, are generally described. In some embodiments, a method includes generating a base near a first electrode (e.g., a cathode) and generating an acid near a second electrode (e.g., an anode) that is electrochemically coupled to the first electrode. In certain embodiments, the method comprises collecting the acid and/or base. In some cases, the method comprises storing the acid and/or base. In some embodiments, the method includes reacting an acid and/or base in chemical dissolution (e.g., reacting an acid with a metal carbonate such as CaCO₃React to produce metal ions such as calcium ions, and/or carbonate ions). In certain embodiments, the methods comprise reacting an acid and/or a base in a precipitation reaction (e.g., reacting a base with a metal ion, such as calcium ion, to produce a metal hydroxide, such as ca (oh)₂). In some embodiments, the metal hydroxide may be used in a cement manufacturing process.

In some cases, generating an acid near the second electrode and/or generating a base near the first electrode results in a gas (e.g., CO)₂、H₂And/or O₂) Is generated. In some cases, one or more gases may be collected,Sold, used in downstream processes, and/or fed back into the system. In some cases, generating an acid near the second electrode and/or a base near the first electrode generates a reduced amount of gas, no gas, and/or no net amount of gas, as any generated gas is used by the system (e.g., to increase the pH gradient between the electrodes). In certain embodiments, for example during periods of low electricity cost, acid generated near the second electrode and/or base generated near the first electrode may be used to generate hydrogen and/or oxygen, for example during periods of high electricity cost.

Systems and methods of the invention for forming a precipitate in a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) are also described. Formation of a precipitate in a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) can be achieved, for example, by: a compound (e.g., a metal salt) is dissolved in a first region (e.g., an acidic region) of a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) and a precipitate comprising one or more elements (e.g., metals) from the compound (e.g., a metal salt) is collected in a second region (e.g., a basic region) of the spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In certain embodiments, a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) is established and/or maintained in an electrochemical cell and by electrolysis (e.g., electrolysis of water). According to some embodiments, after collecting the precipitate, the precipitate is heated in a kiln to produce cement, such as Portland (Portland) cement. In some cases, the subject matter of the present disclosure relates to related products, alternative solutions to specific problems, and/or a number of different uses for one or more systems and/or articles.

Certain aspects relate to methods. In some embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in a first mode; wherein the first mode comprises: generating a base from the first electrode; generating an acid from a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode in the reactor; and collecting the acid and/or base.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in a first mode; wherein the first mode comprises: generating a base from the first electrode; generating an acid from a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode in the reactor; collecting the acid and/or base; and reacting the collected acid and/or base in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction.

In some embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in a first mode; wherein the first mode comprises: generating a base and hydrogen gas from the first electrode; generating an acid and oxygen from a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode in a reactor; and allowing oxygen to diffuse and/or be transported to the first electrode and/or allowing hydrogen to diffuse and/or be transported to the second electrode; and allowing oxygen to be reduced through the first electrode and/or allowing hydrogen to be oxidized through the second electrode.

In some embodiments, the process comprises producing a base and a dihalide in a first reactor; generating an acid in a second reactor; collecting the acid; collecting alkali; chemical dissolution with acid and/or base; and carrying out a precipitation reaction with an acid and/or a base.

Certain aspects relate to systems. In certain embodiments, a system includes a first electrode; a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode; and a device configured to collect the acidic output proximate the second electrode and/or the alkaline output proximate the first electrode.

In some embodiments, a system includes a first electrode; a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode; a first device configured to collect acidic output near the second electrode and/or basic output near the first electrode; and a second apparatus configured to react the collected acidic output and/or the collected basic output.

In certain embodiments, a system includes a first electrode configured to generate a base and hydrogen gas; and a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode and configured to generate an acid and oxygen; wherein the system is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse and/or be delivered to the first electrode and/or allow hydrogen to diffuse and/or be delivered to the second electrode; and wherein the system is configured to allow oxygen to be reduced through the first electrode and/or hydrogen to be oxidized through the second electrode.

In some embodiments, a system includes a first reactor configured to produce a base, a dihalide, and hydrogen; a second reactor configured to generate an acid; a first device configured to collect acid in proximity to the second reactor and to perform a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction with the acid; and a second device configured to collect the base proximate the first reactor and perform a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction with the base.

Other advantages and novel features of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the drawings. In the event that the present specification and the documents incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control.

Drawings

Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying drawings, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component that is illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in every drawing, nor is every component of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention. In the drawings:

fig. 1A is a schematic diagram of a system including a first electrode, a second electrode, and a device, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 1B is a schematic diagram of a system including a first electrode, a second electrode, and two devices, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 1C is a schematic diagram of a system including a first electrode, a second electrode, a device, and a separator, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 1D is a schematic diagram of a system including a first electrode, a second electrode, and three devices, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 1E is a schematic diagram of a system including a first electrode, a second electrode, and six devices, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 1F is a schematic diagram of a system including a first electrode, a second electrode, an apparatus, and a kiln, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 2A is a schematic cross-sectional view of a system that includes a first electrode and a second electrode and that generates hydrogen and oxygen gas, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 2B is a schematic cross-sectional view of a system that includes a first electrode, a second electrode, and a separator and that produces hydrogen and oxygen gas, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 2C is a schematic cross-sectional view of a system that includes a first electrode, a second electrode, a separator, and two devices and that produces hydrogen and oxygen gas, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 2D is a schematic diagram of a system that includes a first electrode, a second electrode, a separator, two devices, and a kiln and that produces hydrogen and oxygen, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 3A is a schematic diagram of a system including two reactors, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 3B is a schematic diagram of a system including two reactors, where a first reactor includes a first electrode and a second electrode, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 4A is a schematic diagram of a system including two chambers, according to some embodiments.

Figure 4B is a schematic diagram of a system including two chambers in which CaCO is dissolved in one chamber, according to some embodiments₃And precipitating Ca (OH) in another chamber₂。

Fig. 5A is a schematic diagram of operating a reactor in a high voltage mode, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 5B is a pourbaix diagram showing the high voltage mode.

Fig. 6A is a schematic diagram of operating a reactor in a low voltage mode, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 6B is a pourbaix diagram showing the low voltage mode.

FIG. 7 is a graph of electrical cost versus time for a 1kW alkaline cell operated at 1.2V (solid line) and for cells consuming the same amount of current (dashed line) operated at 2V when the electrical cost is > $ 0.05/kWh and at 0.4V when the electrical cost is < $ 0.05/kWh.

Fig. 8A is a schematic diagram of operating a reactor in low voltage mode a, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 8B is a pourbaix diagram showing the low voltage mode a.

Fig. 9A is a schematic diagram of operating a reactor in low voltage mode B, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 9B is a pourbaix diagram showing the low voltage mode B.

Fig. 10A is a schematic diagram of operating a reactor in a fuel cell mode, according to some embodiments.

Fig. 10B is a pourbaix diagram showing the fuel cell mode.

Fig. 11 is a flow diagram illustrating electrolysis of neutral pH water to produce an acid/base for producing a precipitated hydroxide, according to some embodiments, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 12 is a flow diagram illustrating electrolysis of an alkali metal halide electrolyte to produce an acid/base for producing a precipitated hydroxide, according to certain embodiments.

Fig. 13A-13B illustrate OH according to certain embodiments^-Charge balancing is performed by cations in the electrolyte that pass through the membrane or membrane. Fig. 13A is a flow diagram illustrating that at a first electrode (e.g., cathode) of reactor 1, water is reduced to produce OH, according to some embodiments^-(alkaline solution) and H_2(g)The figure (a). Fig. 13B is a graph showing O at a first electrode (e.g., cathode) of reactor 1, according to some embodiments₂Is reduced to produce OH^-(alkaline solution).

Fig. 14A-14B illustrate chemical dissolution and precipitation reactions according to certain embodiments. Fig. 14A is a schematic diagram illustrating the reaction of a dihalide with hydrogen to produce a desired acid, according to certain embodiments. Figure 14B is a schematic diagram illustrating reacting a dihalide with water to produce a desired acid and oxygen as a byproduct, according to certain embodiments.

Detailed Description

Chemical reaction apparatus involving acids and/or bases, and related systems and methods, are generally described. In some embodiments, a method includes generating a base near a first electrode (e.g., a cathode) and generating an acid near a second electrode (e.g., an anode) that is electrochemically coupled to the first electrode. In certain embodiments, the method comprises collecting the acid and/or base. In some cases, the method comprises storing the acid and/or base. In some embodiments, the method includes reacting an acid and/or a base in chemical dissolution (e.g., reacting an acid with a metal carbonate such as CaCO₃React to produce metal ions such as calcium ions, and/or carbonate ions). In certain embodiments, the methods comprise reacting an acid and/or a base in a precipitation reaction (e.g., reacting a base with a metal ion, such as calcium ion, to produce a metal hydroxide, such as ca (oh)₂). In some embodiments, the metal hydroxide may be used in a cement manufacturing process.

In some cases, generating an acid near the second electrode and/or generating a base near the first electrode results in a gas (e.g., CO)₂、H₂And/or O₂) Is generated. In some cases, one or more gases may be collected, sold, used in downstream processes, and/or fed back into the system. In some cases, generating an acid near the second electrode and/or a base near the first electrode generates a reduced amount of gas, no gas, and/or no net amount of gas, as any generated gas is used by the system (e.g., to increase the pH gradient between the electrodes). In certain embodiments, for example during periods of low electricity cost, acid generated near the second electrode and/or base generated near the first electrode may be used to generate hydrogen and/or oxygen, for example during periods of high electricity cost.

Reactors including spatially varying chemical composition gradients (e.g., spatially varying pH gradients), and related systems and methods, are also described. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reactor comprises a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In certain embodiments, the precipitate is formed using a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In some embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) is dissolved in a first region (e.g., an acidic region) of a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) and a precipitate comprising one or more elements (e.g., metals) from the compound (e.g., a metal salt) is formed in a second region (e.g., a basic region) of the spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient).

Some embodiments relate to compositions, methods, and reactor designs in which an electrolytic reaction is utilized to create a chemical composition gradient between a positive electrode and a negative electrode of an electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the electrolytically-generated compositional gradient is then employed to carry out the desired chemical reaction by: the reactants are fed to a chemical environment near one electrode and products are produced from the reactants as they or their components diffuse towards the other electrode using an electrolytically generated chemical gradient. In some embodiments, the desired chemical reaction is carried out by collecting the electrolytically-produced solution or suspension of different composition and using the solution or suspension to produce the product from the reactants in a portion of the reactor or in a separate device. In one embodiment, such a reactor is intended to produce decomposed mineral or metal salts by electrochemical and chemical means. In one embodiment, the use of fossil fuels for the production of thermal energy and the associated production of greenhouse gases or gases as atmospheric pollutants is reduced or avoided by using such reactors instead of conventional thermal calcination involving heating minerals or metal salts to decompose them. In some embodiments, the mineral or metal salt comprises a metal carbonate, and the greenhouse gas produced is at least partially carbon dioxide. In another embodiment, the electrolytically-driven chemical reactor is powered by electricity from a renewable energy source, such as solar photovoltaic or wind power, to reduce the use of energy sources that produce greenhouse gases when performing the calcination or decomposition reaction.

Some embodiments relate to a method for producing cement, such as portland cement. Concrete is the most widely used man-made material in the world today. Cement manufacture is also world CO₂The second major industrial emission, accounting for global CO₂About 8% of the emissions. The conventional process for the industrial production of cement comprises CaCO by thermal means₃Calcining. In current cement manufacture, about 60% CO₂Discharging from CaCO₃About 40% CO₂The emissions are caused by the combustion of fossil fuels used to carry out the calcination process and the sintering process. Therefore, less CO is emitted₂There is a great need for cement manufacturing processes. Some embodiments relate to cement manufacturing processes in which thermal calcination is replaced by an electrochemical process described herein that produces less CO per produced quantity of cement than current manufacturing₂。

Cement production systems including the electrochemical reactor and related methods are also described. Certain embodiments relate to a system of the present invention for producing cement including an electrochemical reactor and a kiln. In certain embodiments, the electrochemical reactor is configured to receive CaCO₃. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reactor comprises a reactor configured to discharge ca (oh)₂And/or a first outlet for lime (CaO). In some cases, the electrochemical reactor includes a gas turbine configured to emit CO₂、O₂And/or H₂A second outlet for gas. According to certain embodiments, the kiln is configured to heat Ca (OH)₂And/or lime (and/or reaction products thereof) as part of a cement manufacturing process.

In some embodiments, the system is at least partially (e.g., at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 90%, or 100%) powered by renewable power (e.g., solar and/or wind power). In certain instances, the system has a lower net carbon emission (e.g., at least 10% lower, at least 25% lower, at least 50% lower, at least 75% lower, or at least 90% lower) than a substantially similar system using conventional thermal calcination instead of an electrochemical reactor. In some cases, the system has net zero carbon emissions.

Certain embodiments relate to wherein Ca (OH) is produced in an electrochemical reactor₂And/or lime (CaO). In some embodiments, Ca (OH) from the electrochemical reactor is then added₂And/or lime is conveyed to a kiln which heats Ca (OH)₂And/or lime (and/or reaction products thereof) as part of a cement manufacturing process. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reactor also produces CO₂、O₂And/or H₂A gas. According to certain embodiments, the CO is₂Sequestration for liquid fuels, for oxygenated fuels, for enhanced oil recovery, for the production of dry ice and/or as an ingredient in beverages. In some cases, O may be₂Sequestration for oxygenated fuels, for CCS applications and/or for enhanced oil recovery. In some cases, H may be substituted₂Sequestered and/or used as fuel (e.g., in a fuel cell and/or for heating the system). In some embodiments, CO to be emitted from the system₂、O₂And/or H₂At least a portion (e.g., at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 90%, or all) of (a) is fed into the kiln.

As described above, certain aspects relate to systems. Non-limiting examples of such systems are shown in fig. 1A-3B.

In some embodiments, the system includes a first electrode. In some embodiments, the first electrode comprises a cathode. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the system 100 includes a first electrode 104 (e.g., a cathode). Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, the system 200 includes a first electrode 104 (e.g., a cathode). In certain embodiments, the first electrode is selected to be an electron conductor that is stable under relatively alkaline conditions (e.g., in the alkaline region and/or the base described herein).

In certain embodiments, the first electrode comprises a metal electrode (e.g., platinum, gold, nickel, iridium, copper, iron, steel, stainless steel, manganese, and/or zinc), carbon (e.g., graphite or disordered carbon), or a metal carbide (e.g., silicon carbide, titanium carbide, and/or tungsten carbide). In certain embodiments, the first electrode comprises a metal alloy (e.g., a nickel-chromium-iron alloy, a nickel-molybdenum-cadmium alloy), a metal oxide (e.g., iridium oxide, nickel-iron-cobalt oxide, nickel-cobalt oxide, lithium cobalt oxide, lanthanum-strontium-cobalt oxide, barium-strontium-iron oxide, manganese-molybdenum oxide, ruthenium dioxide, iridium-ruthenium-tantalum oxide), a metal-organic framework, or a metal sulfide (e.g., molybdenum sulfide). In certain embodiments, the electrocatalyst or electrode material is dispersed or coated on the electrically conductive support.

In some embodiments, the system includes a second electrode. In some embodiments, the second electrode comprises an anode. For example, referring back to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the system 100 includes a second electrode 105 (e.g., an anode). Similarly, referring back to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, the system 200 includes a second electrode 105 (e.g., an anode). In some embodiments, the second electrode is electrochemically coupled to the first electrode. That is, the electrodes may be configured such that they are capable of participating in an electrochemical process. Electrochemical coupling may be achieved, for example, by exposing the first and second electrodes to an electrolyte that facilitates ion transport between the two electrodes. Referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first electrode 104 is electrochemically coupled to the second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, the first electrode 104 is electrochemically coupled to the second electrode 105.

In certain embodiments, the second electrode is selected to be an electron conductor that is stable under relatively acidic conditions (e.g., in the acidic region and/or acids described herein). In certain embodiments, the second electrode comprises a metal electrode (e.g., platinum, palladium, lead, and/or tin) or a metal oxide (e.g., a transition metal oxide).

In certain embodiments, the first electrode and/or the second electrode comprise a catalyst. In some embodiments, the cathode catalyst is selected to be stable under alkaline conditions. In some embodiments, the cathode catalyst may include nickel, iron, transition metal sulfides (e.g., iron, nickel, ironMolybdenum sulfide), and/or transition metal oxides (e.g., MnO)₂、Mn₂O₃、Mn₃O₄Nickel oxide, nickel hydroxide, iron oxide, iron hydroxide, cobalt oxide), mixed transition metal spinel oxides (e.g., MnCo₂O₄、CoMn₂O₄、MnFe₂O₄、ZnCoMnO₄) And the like. In some embodiments, the anode catalyst is selected to be stable under acidic conditions. In some embodiments, the anode catalyst comprises platinum, iridium, or oxides thereof.

In some embodiments, the system includes a reactor (e.g., an electrochemical reactor). For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the system 100 includes a reactor. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, system 200 includes a reactor. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a first electrode and a second electrode. For example, in some embodiments, the first electrode is electrochemically coupled to the second electrode in the reactor. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first electrode 104 is electrochemically coupled to the second electrode 105 in a reactor. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, the first electrode 104 is electrochemically coupled to the second electrode 105 in the reactor.

Certain aspects relate to methods, which can be understood with respect to fig. 1A-3B. In some embodiments, the method comprises operating a reactor (e.g., any reactor described herein). In some cases, operating the reactor includes applying an electric current to electrodes of the reactor. In some embodiments, operating the reactor results in at least one chemical reaction occurring within the reactor.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in a first mode. In some embodiments, the first mode includes generating a base in proximity to the first electrode (e.g., the base is generated by an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode). For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first mode includes generating a base in the vicinity of the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, the first mode includes generating a base near the first electrode 104.

In certain embodiments, the first electrode (e.g., in the first mode) is configured to produce a basic output (e.g., any of the bases described herein). In some embodiments, the alkaline output is produced by an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first electrode 104 is configured to generate a base. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, the first electrode 104 is configured to generate a base.

The base can have any of a variety of suitable concentrations. In some embodiments, the concentration of base is greater than or equal to 0.000001M, greater than or equal to 0.00001M, greater than or equal to 0.0001M, greater than or equal to 0.001M, greater than or equal to 0.01M, greater than or equal to 0.1M, greater than or equal to 0.5M, greater than or equal to 1M, greater than or equal to 3M, greater than or equal to 5M, greater than or equal to 7M, greater than or equal to 10M, greater than or equal to 15M, or greater than or equal to 20M. In certain embodiments, the concentration of base is less than or equal to 25M, less than or equal to 20M, less than or equal to 15M, less than or equal to 10M, less than or equal to 7M, less than or equal to 5M, or less than or equal to 3M. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.1M and less than or equal to 25M or greater than or equal to 0.1M and less than or equal to 10M).

According to some embodiments, the generation of base from the first electrode generates a basic region (e.g., any basic region described herein) near the first electrode (e.g., within the half of the reactor chamber closest to the first electrode). For example, in some cases, the fluid adjacent to the first electrode (e.g., the alkaline region) has a higher pH than the fluid further away from the first electrode. As one example, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, the system includes a basic region 106 near the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in some cases, the system includes a basic region near the first electrode 104.

In some embodiments, the pH near the first electrode (e.g., near the first electrode) is greater than or equal to 8, greater than or equal to 9, greater than or equal to 10, greater than or equal to 11, greater than or equal to 12, or greater than or equal to 13. According to some embodiments, the pH near the first electrode is less than or equal to 14, less than or equal to 13, less than or equal to 12, less than or equal to 11, or less than or equal to 10. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 8 and less than or equal to 14).

In some embodiments, the second electrode is configured to produce an acidic output (e.g., any of the acids described herein). In certain embodiments, the acidic output is produced by an electrochemical reaction in the second electrode. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the second electrode 105 is configured to generate an acid. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, the second electrode 105 is configured to generate an acid. In some embodiments, the first mode of the reactor includes generating an acid near the second electrode (e.g., generating an acid by an electrochemical reaction in the second electrode). For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first mode includes generating an acid near the second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in certain embodiments, the first mode includes generating an acid in the vicinity of the second electrode 105.

The acid may be at any of a variety of suitable concentrations. In some embodiments, the concentration of acid is greater than or equal to 0.000001M, greater than or equal to 0.00001M, greater than or equal to 0.0001M, greater than or equal to 0.001M, greater than or equal to 0.01M, greater than or equal to 0.1M, greater than or equal to 0.5M, greater than or equal to 1M, greater than or equal to 3M, greater than or equal to 5M, greater than or equal to 7M, or greater than or equal to 10M. In certain embodiments, the concentration of acid is less than or equal to 12M, less than or equal to 10M, less than or equal to 7M, less than or equal to 5M, less than or equal to 3M, or less than or equal to 1M. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.000001M and less than or equal to 12M or greater than or equal to 0.1M and less than or equal to 10M).

According to some embodiments, the generation of acid from the second electrode generates an acidic region (e.g., any acidic region described herein) proximate to the second electrode (e.g., within a half of the reactor chamber closest to the second electrode). For example, in some cases, the fluid adjacent to the second electrode (e.g., acidic region) has a lower pH than the fluid further away from the second electrode. As an example, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, the system includes an acidic region 107 near the second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in some cases, the system includes an acidic region 107 near the second electrode 105.

According to certain embodiments, the pH of the pH near (e.g., near) the second electrode is less than or equal to 6, less than or equal to 5, less than or equal to 4, less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1. In some embodiments, the pH of the pH near the second electrode is greater than or equal to 0, greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, greater than or equal to 3, greater than or equal to 4, or greater than or equal to 5. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 6).

In certain embodiments, the first electrode (e.g., cathode) is configured to produce hydrogen gas such that hydrogen gas can be produced in the vicinity of the first electrode (e.g., hydrogen gas is produced by an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode). For example, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, the first electrode 104 is configured to produce hydrogen 108. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in some cases, the first electrode 104 is configured to generate hydrogen gas. In some cases, operating the reactor in the first mode includes generating hydrogen (e.g., hydrogen and base) near the first electrode (e.g., hydrogen is generated by an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode). In some cases, hydrogen and/or alkali is generated near the first electrode by reduction of water near the first electrode.

In certain embodiments, the second electrode (e.g., anode) is configured to generate oxygen such that oxygen gas can be generated in the vicinity of the second electrode (e.g., by an electrochemical reaction in the second electrode to generate oxygen gas). For example, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, the second electrode 105 is configured to generate oxygen 109. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in certain embodiments, the second electrode 105 is configured to generate oxygen. In some cases, operating the reactor in the first mode includes generating oxygen (e.g., oxygen and acid) proximate to the second electrode (e.g., oxygen is generated by an electrochemical reaction in the second electrode). In some cases, oxygen and/or acid is generated near the second electrode by oxidation of water near the second electrode.

In some embodiments, the system is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse and/or be delivered to a location near the first electrode (e.g., from a location near the second electrode). For example, in some cases, the system is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse from and/or be transported to the fluid near the first electrode after oxygen is generated by the electrochemical reaction in the second electrode, such that the oxygen can participate in the electrochemical reaction in the first electrode. For example, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, the system 200 is configured to allow oxygen 109 to diffuse from the second electrode 105 and/or be transported to the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in certain embodiments, the system 100 is configured to allow oxygen to diffuse from the second electrode 105 and/or be transported to the first electrode 104.

According to certain embodiments, the system is configured to allow oxygen to be reduced in the vicinity of the first electrode (e.g., by electrochemical reaction in the first electrode). For example, referring to fig. 2A, in certain embodiments, the system 200 is configured to allow oxygen 109 to be reduced near the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in some cases, the system 100 is configured to allow oxygen to be reduced near the first electrode 104. In some embodiments, reducing oxygen in the vicinity of the first electrode comprises the generation of a base. In certain embodiments, the generation of base is advantageous because it increases the total amount of base generated at the first electrode.

In some embodiments, the system is configured to allow hydrogen gas to diffuse and/or be transported to a location near the second electrode (e.g., from a location near the first electrode). For example, in some cases, the system is configured to allow hydrogen gas to diffuse from and/or be transported to a fluid near the first electrode after hydrogen gas is generated by an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode, such that the hydrogen gas can participate in the electrochemical reaction in the second electrode. For example, referring to fig. 2A, in some cases, system 200 is configured to allow hydrogen 108 to diffuse from first electrode 104 and/or be transported to second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in some cases, the system 100 is configured to allow hydrogen gas to diffuse from the first electrode 104 and/or be transported to the second electrode 105.

According to certain embodiments, the system is configured to allow the hydrogen gas to be oxidized in the vicinity of the second electrode (e.g., by oxidizing the hydrogen gas by an electrochemical reaction in the second electrode). For example, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, system 200 is configured to allow hydrogen 108 to be oxidized in the vicinity of second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in certain embodiments, the system 100 is configured to allow hydrogen gas to be oxidized near the second electrode. In some embodiments, oxidizing hydrogen gas in the vicinity of the second electrode comprises the production of an acid. In certain embodiments, the generation of acid is advantageous because it increases the total amount of acid generated at the second electrode.

In some embodiments, the system includes a separator. For example, referring to fig. 1C, in some embodiments, the system 100 includes a separator 124. Similarly, referring to fig. 2B, in certain embodiments, the system 200 includes a separator 124. In certain embodiments, the separator is configured to allow oxygen gas produced at the second electrode to diffuse to the first electrode and/or hydrogen gas produced at the first electrode to diffuse to the second electrode. For example, in some embodiments, the separator may be permeable to oxygen and/or hydrogen. For example, referring to fig. 1C, in some embodiments, the separator 124 is configured to allow oxygen gas produced at the second electrode to diffuse to the first electrode and/or hydrogen gas produced at the first electrode to diffuse to the second electrode. Similarly, referring to fig. 2B, in certain embodiments, the separator 124 is configured to allow oxygen gas produced at the second electrode to diffuse to the first electrode and/or hydrogen gas produced at the first electrode to diffuse to the second electrode.

There may be many suitable methods of transporting hydrogen and/or oxygen from one electrode to another. For example, in some embodiments, hydrogen and/or oxygen may be delivered with a syringe (e.g., if the reactor has an inlet for a syringe near one electrode and an outlet for a syringe near the other electrode, a syringe may be used to deliver gas from one electrode to the other electrode). In certain embodiments, the hydrogen and/or oxygen may be delivered through a conduit (e.g., a pipe (pipe), channel, needle, or tube). In some cases, hydrogen and/or oxygen may be delivered directly from one electrode to the other, or hydrogen and/or oxygen may be stored after removal from the reactor until it is added back to the reactor. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and/or oxygen is delivered continuously or in batches. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen and/or oxygen is delivered automatically or manually.

In some embodiments, the hydrogen gas produced by hydrolysis may be electrochemically oxidized using a Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction (HOR) in which one dihydro molecule reacts to form two protons and two electrons. In other embodiments, the oxygen produced by hydrolysis may be electrochemically reduced in an Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) in which one dioxygen molecule reacts with two water molecules and four electrons to form four hydroxide ions. In some embodiments, the HOR reaction is used to lower the pH or increase the proton concentration of the acidic solution produced by the reactor. In some embodiments, the ORR reaction is used to increase the pH or increase the hydroxide concentration of the alkaline solution produced by the reactor. In some cases, the HOR reaction and ORR reaction as described herein can be performed using electrodes separate from the electrodes used for the electrolytic reaction of the reactor. In certain embodiments, these electrodes may be positioned within an electrolysis reactor, for example, as combustion electrodes where the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen reacts to produce water that remains within the reactor. In some cases, the electrodes for combustion, or for HOR or ORR, may also be positioned in separate vessels or reactors to which the hydrogen and oxygen are each delivered. In some embodiments, hydrogen produced at the cathode of an electrolytic reactor is passed to a HOR electrode connected to the anode side of the reactor, where HOR is carried out and protons produced thereby increase the acid concentration (decrease pH) of the acidic solution produced by the reactor. In certain embodiments, oxygen produced at the anode of the electrolysis reactor is passed to an ORR electrode connected to the cathode side of the reactor, where ORR proceeds and the hydroxide ions produced thereby increase the hydroxide concentration of the alkaline solution produced by the reactor (increasing pH). In some cases, the HOR reaction proceeds preferentially to the ORR reaction, thereby reducing the release of hydrogen to the external environment compared to less reactive oxygen. In some cases, the electrode for hydrogen-oxygen combustion or HOR or ORR may contain a compound that acts as an electrocatalyst. Hydrogen-oxygen Combustion catalysts are described, for example, in "Catalytic Combustion of Hydrogen-Its Role in Hydrogen Utilization", volume 6, phase 6, pages 601 to 608, 1981, by M Haruta and H Sano, which are incorporated herein by reference. Examples of electrocatalysts for HOR and ORR include: platinum group metals such as Pt, Pd, Ru, Rh, Os and Ir used alone or as alloys or mixtures, non-platinum group metals such as Mo, Fe, Ti, W, Cr, Co, Cu, Ag, Au and Re; a high surface area nickel-aluminum alloy known as raney nickel optionally coated or doped with other catalysts. Examples of electrocatalysts selective for ORR include metallic iron, iron oxides, iron sulfides and hydroxides, silver alloys, oxides and nitrates, and various forms of carbon (including carbon paper, carbon felt, graphite, carbon black and nanoscale carbon).

In certain embodiments described herein, the gaseous by-product (e.g., CO) produced by electrolysis₂、H₂And/or O₂) May be of value and may be sold for use in other applications and processes, including combustion in fuel cells or gas turbines or internal combustion engines for the purpose of generating energy and power, including electrical energy. However, in some cases, it may be desirable to reduce or eliminate the production of such gases. Thus, in some embodiments, one or more of the gases produced by the reactor are recombined. As used herein, recombination refers to a chemical or electrochemical reaction that consumes one or more of the generated gases.

In some embodiments, hydrogen and oxygen produced by hydrolysis are recombined using hydrogen-oxygen combustion to form water. For example, referring to fig. 2A, in some embodiments, hydrogen gas 108 produced by the first electrode 104 can recombine with oxygen gas 109 to form water, as shown in fig. 6A. Similarly, referring to fig. 1A, in certain embodiments, hydrogen gas produced by the first electrode 104 can be recombined with oxygen gas to form water. According to certain embodiments, hydrogen-oxygen recombination may occur inside or outside the reactor, and in some cases may use electrode materials and designs well known to those skilled in the art, and optionally catalysts. In certain embodiments, the process produces no net hydrogen (or the net amount of hydrogen produced is less than 5% (e.g., less than 2% or less than 1%) of the current supplied to the reactor). For example, in some embodiments, the process does not release any hydrogen into the atmosphere (or the amount of hydrogen released is less than 5% (e.g., less than 2% or less than 1%) of the current supplied to the reactor) because the hydrogen produced recombines with oxygen to form water. Similarly, in some cases, the process does not produce net oxygen (or the net amount of oxygen produced is less than 5% (e.g., less than 2% or less than 1%) of the current supplied to the reactor). For example, in some cases, the process does not release any oxygen into the atmosphere (or the net amount of oxygen released is less than 5% (e.g., less than 2% or less than 1%) of the current supplied to the reactor) because the oxygen produced recombines with hydrogen to form water.

In some embodiments, the hydrolysis is performed under conditions that produce an alkaline pH near the first electrode (e.g., cathode) and an acidic pH near the second electrode (e.g., anode), respectively, without liberating hydrogen or oxygen (or the amount of hydrogen or oxygen liberated is less than 5% (e.g., less than 2% or less than 1%) of the current supplied to the reactor). For example, in some embodiments, O₂From which acids and O can be generated₂To a first electrode (e.g., cathode) where base is generated and where O is diffused (e.g., through electrolyte 235 of fig. 2A and/or through air above the electrolyte) to a second electrode (e.g., anode) where base is generated₂Will be reduced to form OH^-(1/2O₂+H₂O+2e^-→2OH^-). In certain embodiments, the reaction will be at an electrode potential of pH > 7 and less than 0.8V relative to a standard hydrogen electrodeThe following occurs. Similarly, in some cases, H₂A first electrode (e.g., cathode) from which a base can be generated diffuses to a second electrode (e.g., anode) where an acid is generated and where H is generated₂Will be oxidized to form H + (H)₂→2H⁺+2e^-). In some cases, this will occur at pH < 7 and at electrode potentials greater than-0.41V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. In other electrolysis cells, such as alkaline electrolysis cells, the reaction is hindered by a separator that prevents gas crossover between the two electrodes. However, in some embodiments disclosed herein, the reactor includes a separator that allows and/or promotes H₂And/or O₂So that they can be consumed and increase the pH gradient.

In some embodiments, the acidic solution (less than pH 7) is produced from a neutral pH electrolyte at an electrode potential greater than 0.8V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. For example, in certain embodiments, to produce an acidic solution at pH 0, the minimum electrode potential relative to a standard hydrogen electrode will be 1.23V. In some cases, alkaline solutions (greater than pH 7) are produced from neutral pH electrolytes at electrode potentials less than-0.4V versus standard hydrogen electrodes. For example, to produce an alkaline solution of pH 14, the maximum electrode potential relative to a standard hydrogen electrode would be-0.83V.

The nernst potential at the second electrode (e.g., the nernst potential in the fluid closest to the second electrode) may be any of a number of suitable values. In some embodiments, the nernst potential at the second electrode (e.g., anode) is greater than or equal to-0.4V, greater than or equal to-0.2V, greater than or equal to 0V, greater than or equal to 0.5V, greater than or equal to 0.8V, greater than or equal to 0.9V, greater than or equal to 1V, greater than or equal to 1.1V, greater than or equal to 1.2V, greater than or equal to 1.4V, or greater than or equal to 1.6V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. In certain embodiments, the nernst potential at the second electrode is less than or equal to 2V, less than or equal to 1.7V, less than or equal to 1.5V, less than or equal to 1.4V, less than or equal to 1.3V, less than or equal to 1.2V, less than or equal to 1.1V, less than or equal to 1V, less than or equal to 0.9V, less than or equal to 0.8V, less than or equal to 0.5V, less than or equal to 0V, or less than or equal to-0.2V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.8V and less than or equal to 2V, greater than or equal to 1.2V and less than or equal to 2V, greater than or equal to-0.4V and less than or equal to 0.5V, or greater than or equal to 0V and less than or equal to 0.5V).

In certain embodiments, the appropriate nernst potential at the second electrode depends on the type of reaction at the electrode. For example, in some cases, the nernst potential at the second electrode is greater than or equal to-0.4V (e.g., greater than or equal to-0.4V and less than or equal to 0.5V, or greater than or equal to 0V and less than or equal to 0.5V) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode when hydrogen is oxidized to an acid. As another example, in some cases, the nernst potential at the second electrode is greater than or equal to 0.8V (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.8V and less than or equal to 2V, or greater than or equal to 1.2V and less than or equal to 2V) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode when water is oxidized to acid and oxygen.

The nernst potential at the first electrode (e.g., the nernst potential in the fluid closest to the first electrode) may be any of a number of suitable values. In certain embodiments, the nernst potential at the first electrode (e.g., cathode) is less than or equal to 0.8V, less than or equal to 0.6V, less than or equal to 0.4V, less than or equal to 0V, less than or equal to-0.4V, less than or equal to-0.5V, less than or equal to-0.6V, less than or equal to-0.7V, less than or equal to-0.8V, less than or equal to-0.9V, less than or equal to-1V, less than or equal to-1.2V, or less than or equal to-1.4V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. In some embodiments, the nernst potential at the first electrode is greater than or equal to-2V, greater than or equal to-1.7V, greater than or equal to-1.5V, greater than or equal to-1.2V, greater than or equal to-1V, greater than or equal to-0.9V, greater than or equal to-0.8V, greater than or equal to-0.7V, greater than or equal to-0.6V, greater than or equal to-0.5V, greater than or equal to-0.4V, greater than or equal to 0V, greater than or equal to 0.4V, or greater than or equal to 0.6V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to-1.5V and less than or equal to-0.4V, greater than or equal to-1.5V and less than or equal to-0.8V, greater than or equal to-0.4V and less than or equal to 0.8V, or greater than or equal to-0.4V and less than or equal to 0.4V).

In certain embodiments, the appropriate nernst potential at the first electrode depends on the type of reaction at the electrode. For example, in some cases, the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to 0.8V (e.g., less than or equal to 0.8V and greater than or equal to-0.4V, or less than or equal to 0.4V and greater than or equal to-0.4V) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode when oxygen is reduced to the base. As another example, in some cases, the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to-0.4V (e.g., less than or equal to-0.4V and greater than or equal to-1.5V, or less than or equal to-0.8V and greater than or equal to-1.5V) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode when water is reduced to the base and hydrogen gas.

In certain embodiments, the cell voltage (e.g., the voltage applied to the cell, for example, during production of acid and/or base) is greater than or equal to 0V, greater than or equal to 0.5V, greater than or equal to 1V, greater than or equal to 1.23V, greater than or equal to 1.5V, greater than or equal to 2V, greater than or equal to 2.06V, or greater than or equal to 2.5V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. In some embodiments, the cell voltage is less than or equal to 5V, less than or equal to 4V, less than or equal to 3V, less than or equal to 2.5V, less than or equal to 2.25V, less than or equal to 2V, less than or equal to 1.5V, less than or equal to 1V, or less than or equal to 0.5V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., 0V to 5V or 0V to 2.5V).

In some embodiments, the system includes a reactor system for producing a concentrated acid and a concentrated base. According to some embodiments, the system comprises a first reactor (e.g., any reactor described herein). For example, referring to fig. 3A, in some embodiments, the system 300 includes a first reactor 320. According to some embodiments, the system comprises a second reactor (e.g., any reactor described herein). For example, referring to fig. 3A, in some embodiments, the system 300 includes a second reactor 301. In some cases, the first reactor and the second reactor are fluidly connected. For example, referring to fig. 3A, according to some embodiments, a first reactor 320 is fluidly connected to a second reactor 301 by a conduit 330. For example, in some cases, a fluid (e.g., a liquid or a gas) produced in a first reactor may diffuse and/or be transported to a second reactor. As a non-limiting example, in certain embodiments, the process comprises diffusing and/or transporting hydrogen and/or a dihalide from a first reactor to a second reactor.

In some embodiments, the first reactor comprises an electrochemical reactor. In some cases, the first reactor includes a first electrode (e.g., any of the first electrodes described herein). For example, referring to fig. 3B, in some cases, the first reactor 320 includes the first electrode 104. In some cases, the first reactor includes a second electrode (e.g., any of the second electrodes described herein). For example, referring to fig. 3B, in some cases, the first reactor 320 includes the second electrode 105. In some embodiments, the second electrode is electrochemically coupled to the first electrode (e.g., the electrodes are configured such that current can flow from one electrode to the other). That is, the electrodes may be configured such that they are capable of participating in an electrochemical process. Electrochemical coupling may be achieved, for example, by exposing the first and second electrodes to an electrolyte that facilitates ion transport between the two electrodes. For example, referring to fig. 3A, in some embodiments, the first electrode 104 is electrochemically coupled to the second electrode 105.

In some cases, the second reactor includes a fuel cell (e.g., H)₂/Cl₂A fuel cell). In some embodiments, the method comprises generating an acid in the second reactor. For example, in certain instances, the second reactor 301 in fig. 3A is configured to generate an acid (e.g., any acid described herein).

In certain embodiments, the process comprises producing a base (e.g., any base described herein), a dihalide, and/or hydrogen in a first reactor. For example, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the first reactor 320 is configured to produce a base, a dihalide, and/or hydrogen. In some cases, the dihalide is generated near the second electrode of the first reactor (e.g., the dihalide is generated by an electrochemical reaction in the second electrode of the first reactor). For example, referring to fig. 3B, in some cases, the dihalide is generated near the second electrode 105 of the first reactor 320. In some embodiments, the base and/or hydrogen gas is generated in the vicinity of the first electrode (e.g., the base and/or hydrogen gas is generated by an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode). For example, referring to fig. 3B, in some cases, a base is generated near the first electrode 104.

The nernst potential at the second electrode of the first reactor (e.g., the nernst potential in the fluid closest to the second electrode) may be any of a number of suitable values. In some embodiments, the nernst potential at the second electrode (e.g., anode) of the first reactor is greater than or equal to 1.3V, greater than or equal to 1.5V, greater than or equal to 1.7V, greater than or equal to 1.9V, greater than or equal to 2.1V, or greater than or equal to 2.3V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. In certain embodiments, the nernst potential at the second electrode of the first reactor is less than or equal to 2.5V, less than or equal to 2.3V, less than or equal to 2.1V, less than or equal to 1.9V, less than or equal to 1.7V, or less than or equal to 1.5V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 1.3V and less than or equal to 2.5V).

In certain embodiments, the appropriate nernst potential at the second electrode of the first reactor depends on the type of reaction at the electrode. For example, in some cases, when a dihalide is produced (e.g., chloride ion is oxidized to form C1₂) When the Nernst potential at the second electrode is greater than or equal to 1.3V (e.g., greater than or equal to 1.3V and less than or equal to 2.5V) relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.

In some embodiments, Cl-produced from Cl-at a Nernst potential greater than 1.36V (e.g., greater than or equal to 1.4V, greater than or equal to 1.5V, greater than or equal to 1.7V, or greater than or equal to 2V; less than or equal to 5V, less than or equal to 3V, less than or equal to 2V, or less than or equal to 1.5V; combinations are also possible) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode₂。

In some embodimentsIn one embodiment, Br is generated from Br at a Nernst potential of greater than 1.06V (e.g., greater than or equal to 1.1V, greater than or equal to 1.2V, greater than or equal to 1.3V, greater than or equal to 1.5V, or greater than or equal to 1.8V; less than or equal to 4V, less than or equal to 3V, less than or equal to 2V, or less than or equal to 1.5V; combinations are also possible) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode₂。

In some cases, 1 is produced by I-at a Nernst potential greater than 0.54V (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.6V, greater than or equal to 0.7V, greater than or equal to 0.8V, greater than or equal to 0.9V, greater than or equal to 1V, or greater than or equal to 1.2V; less than or equal to 3V, less than or equal to 2V, less than or equal to 1.5V, less than or equal to 1.3V, or less than or equal to 1V; combinations are also possible) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode₂。

The nernst potential at the first electrode of the first reactor (e.g., the nernst potential in the fluid closest to the first electrode) can be any of a number of suitable values. In some embodiments, the nernst potential at the first electrode (e.g., cathode) of the first reactor is greater than or equal to-2V, greater than or equal to-1.8V, greater than or equal to-1.6V, greater than or equal to-1.4V, greater than or equal to-1.2V, greater than or equal to-1.0V, greater than or equal to-0.8V, greater than or equal to-0.6V, greater than or equal to-0.4V, greater than or equal to-0.2V, greater than or equal to 0V, greater than or equal to 0.2V, greater than or equal to 0.4V, or greater than or equal to 0.6V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. In certain embodiments, the nernst potential at the first electrode of the first reactor is less than or equal to 0.8V, less than or equal to 0.6V, less than or equal to 0.4V, less than or equal to 0.2V, less than or equal to 0V, less than or equal to-0.2V, less than or equal to-0.4V, less than or equal to-0.6V, less than or equal to-0.8V, less than or equal to-1.0V, less than or equal to-1.2V, less than or equal to-1.4V, or less than or equal to-1.6V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to-2V and less than or equal to 0.8V, greater than or equal to-1.4V and less than or equal to 0.4V, greater than or equal to-2V and less than or equal to-0.4V, or greater than or equal to-2V and less than or equal to-0.8V).

In certain embodiments, the appropriate nernst potential at the first electrode of the first reactor depends on the type of reaction at the electrode. For example, in some cases, the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to 0.8V (e.g., greater than or equal to-2V and less than or equal to 0.8V, or greater than or equal to-1.4V and less than or equal to 0.4V) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode when oxygen is reduced to form a base. As another example, in some cases, the nernst potential at the first electrode is less than or equal to-0.4V (e.g., greater than or equal to-2V and less than or equal to-0.4V, or greater than or equal to-2V and less than or equal to-0.8V) relative to a standard hydrogen electrode when water is reduced to hydrogen gas and base.

In certain embodiments, the first reactor produces the base/alkaline solution, dihalide, and hydrogen from an electrolyte comprising a halide salt. Fig. 11 illustrates a neutral water electrolyser-based reactor as disclosed herein whereby electrolysis or hydrolysis produces an acidic solution and an alkaline solution, then the acidic solution is used to decarbonise the starting metal carbonate, and then the alkaline solution is used to precipitate metal hydroxide from dissolved metal ions of the starting metal carbonate, according to certain embodiments. In some embodiments, the volumetric concentration of reactants operating on such a reactor is determined by the pH value produced by the electrolytic cell.

An alternative reactor concept, according to certain embodiments, is shown in fig. 12. According to some embodiments, the reactor is capable of producing higher concentrations of acid and base than the reactor in fig. 11. In some embodiments, a system includes a first reactor that electrolytically oxidizes a near-neutral solution of a dissolved metal salt to produce an alkaline solution, hydrogen, and a compound rich in cations of the metal salt. In some embodiments, the metal salt is an alkali metal halide salt or an alkaline earth metal halide salt and the compound produced is a dihalide. According to certain embodiments, the second reactor produces an acidic solution by reacting the compound and hydrogen with water. In some embodiments, the acidic solution produced by the second reactor and the basic solution produced by the first reactor are then separately used to reactCO evolution₂Dissolving and precipitating the metal hydroxide. With an absolute H of greater than about 1 mole being achieved therein⁺Unlike the reactor of fig. 11, where OH "concentration may be difficult, in certain embodiments the reactor of fig. 12 may reach concentrations of 3 moles, 5 moles, or even higher.

In certain embodiments, the first reactor comprises a second electrode (e.g., an anode), a first electrode (e.g., a cathode), a semi-permeable membrane between the two electrodes, an inlet for an electrolyte, and a reactor for electrolysis products (H)₂Dihalide and alkaline solution). In some embodiments, an additional inlet near the first electrode introduces O₂. In some cases, the electrolyte is a near-neutral aqueous solution having a metal salt dissolved therein. In some cases, the aqueous solution contains a halide anion (e.g., F)^-、Cl^-、Br^-、I^-) And corresponding cations (e.g. Li)⁺、Na⁺、K⁺、NH₄ ⁺、Mg²⁺、Ca²⁺). In certain embodiments, the concentration of halide salt in the electrolyte may be anywhere from 0.01 wt% to 50 wt%. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is introduced to the second electrode (e.g., anode) through the inlet. In some cases, the active material on the surface of the second electrode can include platinum, graphite, platinized titanium, mixed metal oxides, mixed metal oxide coated titanium, platinized metal oxides (e.g., platinized lead oxide, manganese dioxide), platinized ferrosilicon, platinum-iridium alloys, ruthenium oxides, titanium oxides, ruthenium and/or titanium mixed metal oxides.

In some cases, at the second electrode of reactor 1, halide anions are oxidized to produce dihalides (e.g., Cl)₂、Br₂、I₂). For example, in some cases, dissolved Cl^-Oxidation of (2) to produce Cl₂A gas.

2Cl^- _(aq)→Cl_2(g)+2e^-

In certain embodiments, Br is at room temperature^-Oxidation of (D) to produce Br₂(fuming liquid), and I^-Oxidation of (II) to produce I₂(solid). In some cases, the dihalide is collected from the electrolytic cell through an outlet and used in the subsequent step described below to prepare the acid. In some cases, cations (e.g., Li) are included⁺、Na⁺、K⁺、NH₄ ⁺) Moves through a semi-permeable membrane (diaphragm or ion exchange membrane) towards a first electrode (e.g., cathode). In some cases, the separator or membrane prevents an alkaline solution produced at the first electrode from raising the pH at the second electrode. In certain embodiments, the surface of the first electrode may comprise an electrocatalytic compound. Examples of electrocatalytic compounds include platinum, platinized titanium, mixed metal oxide coated titanium, platinized metal oxides (e.g., platinized lead oxide, manganese dioxide), platinized ferrosilicon, platinum-iridium alloys, stainless steel, graphite, unalloyed titanium, stainless steel, nickel oxide. In certain embodiments, the second electrode comprises a metal electrode such as platinum, gold, nickel, iridium, copper, iron, steel, stainless steel, manganese, and zinc, or carbon such as graphite or disordered carbon, or a metal carbide such as silicon carbide, titanium carbide, or tungsten carbide. In certain embodiments, the second electrode comprises a metal alloy (e.g., a nickel-chromium-iron alloy, a nickel-molybdenum-cadmium alloy), a metal oxide (e.g., iridium oxide, nickel-iron-cobalt oxide, nickel-cobalt oxide, lithium cobalt oxide, lanthanum-strontium-cobalt oxide, barium-strontium-iron oxide, manganese-molybdenum oxide, ruthenium dioxide, iridium-ruthenium-tantalum oxide), a metal-organic framework, or a metal sulfide (e.g., molybdenum sulfide). In certain embodiments, the electrocatalyst or electrode material is dispersed or coated on the electrically conductive support. In some embodiments, as shown in fig. 13A, at a first electrode (e.g., cathode) of reactor 1, water is reduced to produce OH^-(alkaline solution) and H_2(g)：

H₂O+2e^-→H₂+2OH^-

In another embodiment, at the first electrode (e.g., cathode) of reactor 1, O₂Is reduced to produce OH^-(alkaline solution); see fig. 13A.

1/2O₂+H₂O+2e^-→2OH^-

In some embodiments, OH^-Charge balancing is performed by cations across the membrane or membrane in electrolysis, for example as shown in fig. 13. In some cases, an alkali metal hydroxide solution (e.g., NaOH, KOH) having a pH of greater than 7 and a concentration of alkali of 0.01mol/L or greater is collected from the reactor at the outlet. In some cases, H is collected from the reactor from different outlets₂. In some cases, reactor 1 produces a basic solution at one electrode and hydrogen and dihalide (in the case where the metal salt is a metal halide) at the other electrode.

In fig. 12, according to some embodiments, reactor 2 is a reactor that generates an acid by reacting hydrogen produced at the anode of reactor 1 with a dihalide, or by reacting a dihalide with water. Without being limited by the following examples, two embodiments of the reactor are shown in fig. 14A-14B. According to certain embodiments, in fig. 14A, the reactor comprises a first chamber through which H is fed₂An inlet for introduction into the first chamber, a second inlet through which the dihalide is introduced into the first chamber and an outlet through which the hydrogen halide (e.g., HCl, HBr, HI) is removed from the first chamber, an inlet through which the hydrogen halide is introduced into the second chamber, an inlet through which water is introduced into the second chamber and an outlet through which the acidic aqueous solution of hydrogen halide is removed from the second chamber. In some embodiments, the dihalide is reacted with H in the first chamber₂React to form hydrogen halide. In certain embodiments, H₂The reaction with the dihalide can be assisted by heating or by irradiation via electromagnetic waves. For example, in some embodiments, if the dihalide is Cl₂Then the following reaction takes place in reactor 2:

Cl₂+H₂→2HCl

in some cases, in the second chamber, the hydrogen halide is dissolved in water to prepare an acidic solution. For example, HCl may be dissolved in water to produce protons.

According to certain embodiments, in the figuresIn 14B, the dihalide is reacted with water to produce the desired acid, and oxygen as a by-product. In some cases, an exemplary reactor includes a first chamber through which H is passed₂O is introduced into an inlet in the first chamber and a second inlet through which the dihalide is introduced into the first chamber. In some cases, the reactor further includes an outlet through which hydrogen halide (e.g., HCl, HBr, HI) is removed from the first chamber and an outlet through which O is removed₂An outlet removed from the first chamber. In some cases, the reaction between chlorine and water as exemplary dihalides is:

Cl₂+H₂O→2HCl+1/2O₂

in some embodiments, the relative amounts of dihalide and water will determine whether pure hydrogen halide is produced, or a blend of hydrogen halide and water, including, for example, a solution of hydrogen halide in water. Optionally, in certain embodiments, the reactor can include a second chamber having an inlet through which the hydrogen halide is introduced wherein the hydrogen halide is dissolved in water to produce an acidic solution, an inlet through which water is introduced into the second chamber, and an outlet through which the acidic aqueous solution of hydrogen halide is removed from the reactor, as shown in fig. 14B.

In some embodiments, a system comprises a device. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the system includes a first device 118. Similarly, referring to FIG. 2C, in some cases, the system includes a first device 118. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the system includes a first device 118. In some cases, the device is a container (e.g., a container that is not open to the atmosphere). According to certain embodiments, the apparatus is configured to collect one or more products or byproducts of the reactor (e.g., acids, bases, hydrogen, oxygen, and/or carbon dioxide gas, etc.), store one or more of the one or more products or byproducts, and/or react one or more of the one or more products or byproducts (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction).

In certain embodiments, a system comprises a plurality of devices. In some embodiments, a system comprises greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, greater than or equal to 3, greater than or equal to 4, or greater than or equal to 5 devices. In some cases, a system includes less than or equal to 6, less than or equal to 5, less than or equal to 4, less than or equal to 3, or less than or equal to 2 devices. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., 1 to 6 devices). In some embodiments, a system includes a first device and a second device. For example, in fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the system includes a first device 118 and a second device 119. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the system includes a first device 118 and a second device 119. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, a system includes a first device 118 and a second device 119. Each device may independently have one or more functions. Any device, or configuration of devices, disclosed herein may be used with any system disclosed herein.

In certain embodiments, the device is fluidly connected to the reactor. For example, in some cases, the device is connected to the reactor by a conduit (e.g., a tube, channel, needle, or tube) through which fluid can flow. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the device 118 is fluidly connected to the reactor via a conduit. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the device 118 is fluidly connected to the reactor via a conduit. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, device 118 is fluidly connected to the reactor via a conduit.

In some cases, the device is fluidly connected to one or more additional devices (e.g., through a conduit, such as a tube, channel, needle, or tube). For example, referring to fig. 1D, the first device 118 is fluidly connected to the third device 120 by a conduit. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in some embodiments, the first device 118 can be fluidly connected to a third device (e.g., via a catheter). Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the first device 118 may be fluidly connected to a third device (e.g., via a catheter). As another example, referring to fig. 1E, in some embodiments, first device 118 is fluidly connected to third device 120 (e.g., through a conduit), which third device 120 is fluidly connected to fifth device 122 (e.g., through a conduit), while second device 119 is fluidly connected to fourth device 121 (e.g., through a conduit), which fourth device 121 is fluidly connected to sixth device 123 (e.g., through a conduit).

According to some embodiments, the method comprises collecting the acid and/or base. For example, in some embodiments, the method comprises removing the acid and/or base from a vessel (e.g., a reactor) in which the acid and/or base is generated. One non-limiting example of a suitable method of collecting the acid and/or base includes moving the acid and/or base through a conduit (e.g., a tube, channel, needle, or tube) into a separate container. Other suitable examples of collecting the acid and/or base include moving the acid and/or base directly into a separate vessel (e.g., a vessel connected to the reactor through a panel that can move to block or allow diffusion of the fluid). In some embodiments, the acid and/or base is collected continuously or in batches. In certain embodiments, the acid and/or base is collected automatically or manually.

In some embodiments, the device is configured to collect acid near the second electrode (and/or second reactor) and/or base near the first electrode (and/or first reactor) (e.g., collect acid from an acidic region and/or collect base from a basic region). For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the system includes a first device 118 configured to collect the base proximate the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the system includes a first device 118 configured to collect the base proximate the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, the system 300 includes a first device 118 configured to collect the base proximate the first reactor 320 (e.g., proximate the first electrode 104 of the first reactor 320). In some embodiments, the first device 118 may be configured to collect acid near the second electrode (and/or second reactor) in addition to or instead of collecting base near the first electrode (and/or first reactor).

In certain embodiments, the second device is configured to collect the acid near the second electrode (and/or second reactor) and/or the base near the first electrode (and/or first reactor). In some embodiments, wherein the first device is configured to collect the base near the first electrode, the second device is configured to collect the acid near the second electrode. For example, referring to fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the system includes a first device 118 and a second device 119, and in some cases, the first device 118 is configured to collect base near the first electrode 104 and the second device 119 is configured to collect acid near the second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the system includes a first device 118 and a second device 119, and in certain instances, the first device 118 is configured to collect the base proximate the first electrode 104 and the second device 119 is configured to collect the acid proximate the second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the system 300 includes a first apparatus 118 and a second apparatus 119, and in some cases, the first apparatus 118 is configured to collect the base proximate the first reactor 320 (e.g., the first electrode 104) and the apparatus 119 is configured to collect the acid proximate the second reactor 301. Alternatively, in embodiments where the first device is configured to collect acid in the vicinity of the second electrode (and/or second reactor), the second device may be configured to collect base in the vicinity of the first electrode (and/or first reactor).

In certain embodiments, collecting the acid comprises collecting the acid produced by the electrode from a vicinity sufficiently close to the electrode where the acid is not significantly diluted and/or reacted (e.g., the pH of the collected acid is within one pH unit of the acid having the lowest pH in the reactor). Similarly, in some embodiments, collecting the base comprises collecting the base produced by the electrode from a vicinity sufficiently close to the electrode that the base is not significantly diluted and/or reacted (e.g., the pH of the collected base is within one pH unit of the base having the highest pH in the reactor).

According to some embodiments, the method comprises storing the acid and/or base. For example, in certain embodiments, after the acid and/or base are collected in a separate vessel, the method comprises maintaining the acid and/or base in the separate vessel for at least a period of time. In some embodiments, the method comprises storing the acid and/or base for greater than or equal to 5 minutes, greater than or equal to 15 minutes, greater than or equal to 30 minutes, greater than or equal to 1 hour, greater than or equal to 5 hours, greater than or equal to 12 hours, greater than or equal to 1 day, greater than or equal to 2 days, greater than or equal to 3 days, greater than or equal to 1 week, greater than or equal to 2 weeks, or greater than or equal to 1 month. In certain embodiments, the method comprises storing the acid and/or base for less than or equal to 1 year, less than or equal to 6 months, less than or equal to 3 months, less than or equal to 2 months, less than or equal to 1 month, less than or equal to 2 weeks, less than or equal to 1 week, less than or equal to 3 days, less than or equal to 2 days, less than or equal to 1 day, or less than or equal to 12 hours. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 5 minutes and less than or equal to 1 year, greater than or equal to 5 hours and less than or equal to 1 day, or greater than or equal to 1 week and less than or equal to 1 year).

In certain embodiments, the device (e.g., the first device and/or the second device) is configured to store an acid and/or a base. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to store a base. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to store a base. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the first device 118 is configured to store a base.

As another example, referring to fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the second device 119 is configured to store an acid. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in some cases, the second device 119 is configured to store an acid. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the second device 119 is configured to store an acid.

In some embodiments where the first device is configured to store a base, the second device is configured to store an acid. For example, referring to fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the system includes a first apparatus 118 and a second apparatus 119, and in some cases, the first apparatus 118 is configured to store a base and the second apparatus 119 is configured to store an acid. Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in some cases, the system includes a first device 118 and a second device 119, and in some cases, the first device 118 is configured to store a base and the second device 119 is configured to store an acid. Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, according to certain embodiments, the system includes a first apparatus 118 and a second apparatus 119, and in certain instances, the first apparatus 118 is configured to store a base and the second apparatus 119 is configured to store an acid. Alternatively, in embodiments where the first device is configured to store an acid, the second device may be configured to store a base.

According to some embodiments, the method comprises reacting an acid and/or a base in chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction. In certain embodiments, chemical dissolution precedes the precipitation reaction (e.g., the chemically dissolved product is used in the precipitation reaction). In some cases, the precipitation reaction precedes chemical dissolution (e.g., the product of the precipitation reaction is used for chemical dissolution). In some cases, the chemical dissolution and precipitation reactions are simultaneous and/or unrelated (e.g., the product of one is not used for the other, and vice versa).

In some embodiments, the device (e.g., the first device and/or the second device) is configured to react the acid in chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction. For example, referring to fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the second device 119 is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the second device 119 is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, according to certain embodiments, the second device 119 is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction).

In certain embodiments, the apparatus (e.g., the first apparatus and/or the second apparatus) is configured to react the base in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction. As another example, referring to fig. 1A, in certain embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in some embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, according to some embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction).

In some embodiments where the first device is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction), the second device is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). For example, referring to fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the system includes a first apparatus 118 and a second apparatus 119, and in some cases, the first apparatus 118 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction), and the second apparatus 119 is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the system includes a first apparatus 118 and a second apparatus 119, and in certain instances, the first apparatus 118 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction), and the second apparatus 119 is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, according to certain embodiments, the system includes a first apparatus 118 and a second apparatus 119, and in certain instances, the first apparatus 118 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction), and the second apparatus 119 is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Alternatively, in embodiments where the first device is configured to react an acid, the second device may be configured to react a base.

According to certain embodiments, the device (e.g., the first device and/or the second device) may be configured to (i) collect the acid near the second electrode and/or the base near the first electrode; (ii) storing the acid and/or base; and/or (iii) reacting an acid and/or a base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to (i) collect base near the first electrode; (ii) storing the alkali; and (iii) reacting the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to (i) collect the base near the first electrode; (ii) storing the alkali; and (iii) reacting the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, in some cases, the first device 118 is configured to (i) collect the base near the first electrode; (ii) storing the alkali; and (iii) reacting the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction).

As another example, referring to fig. 1B, in some embodiments, the second device 119 is configured to (i) collect acid near the second electrode; (ii) storing the acid; and (iii) reacting the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 2C, in certain embodiments, the second device 119 is configured to (i) collect acid near the second electrode; (ii) storing the acid; and (iii) reacting the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). Similarly, referring to fig. 3A, the second device 119 is configured to (i) collect acid near the second electrode; (ii) storing the acid; and (iii) reacting the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction).

According to some embodiments, each device may have only one function. For example, in certain embodiments, the first device is configured to collect base near the first electrode, the second device is configured to collect acid near the second electrode, and the third device is configured to react the base and/or acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). For example, in fig. 1D, in certain embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to collect base near the first electrode 104, the second device 119 is configured to collect acid near the second electrode 105, and the third device 120 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). As another non-limiting example, in some embodiments, the first device is configured to collect the base near the first electrode and store the base; the second device is configured to collect acid near the second electrode, store the acid, and react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction); and the third device is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). For example, in fig. 1D, in some embodiments, the first device 118 is configured to collect the base near the first electrode 104 and store the base; the second device 119 is configured to collect acid near the second electrode 105, store the acid, and react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction); and the third device 120 is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction).

In yet another example, in some embodiments, the first device is configured to collect the base near the first electrode, the second device is configured to collect the acid near the second electrode, the third device is configured to store the base, the fourth device is configured to store the acid, the fifth device is configured to react the base (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction), and the sixth device is configured to react the acid (e.g., in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction). For example, in fig. 1E, in some cases, the first device 118 is configured to collect base near the first electrode 104, the second device 119 is configured to collect acid near the second electrode 105, the third device 120 is configured to store base, the fourth device 121 is configured to store acid, the fifth device 122 is configured to react base (e.g., in chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction), and the sixth device 123 is configured to react acid (e.g., in chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction).

In some embodiments, the acids and/or bases described herein are reacted in a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction. In some cases, the acid and/or base are reacted in chemical dissolution. In some embodiments, chemically dissolving includes dissolving a solid to form two dissolved ions. In some embodiments, the solid comprises a metal, metal alloy, metalloid, metal salt, metal oxide, metal hydroxide, and/or silicate. In certain embodiments, the solid is crystalline, amorphous, nanocrystalline, and/or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the solid comprises Ag, Al, As, Au, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Se, Si, Sn, Ti, Tl, V, W, and/or Zn (e.g., in elemental form or As a salt).

In some embodiments, the metal and/or metal alloy comprises iron, iron-based alloys, stainless steel, non-ferrous metals, non-ferrous alloys, aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, zinc, tin, and/or coin alloys.

Examples of metal salts, metal oxides, and metal hydroxides include salts, oxides, and hydroxides of calcium, magnesium, barium, strontium, manganese, iron, cobalt, zinc, cadmium, lead, and/or nickel. For example, in some embodiments, the metal salt comprises a metal carbonate. Examples of suitable metal carbonates include calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, barium carbonate, strontium carbonate, manganese carbonate, iron carbonate, cobalt carbonate, zinc carbonate, cadmium carbonate, lead carbonate, and/or nickel carbonate.

Examples of suitable metal oxides include calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, strontium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium oxide, lead oxide, silica, and/or aluminum oxide.

Examples of suitable metal hydroxides include calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, manganese hydroxide, iron oxides, cobalt hydroxide, nickel hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, cadmium hydroxide, lead hydroxide, silicon hydroxide, and/or aluminum hydroxide.

In some embodiments, the acid reacts in the chemical dissolution of a metal, metal alloy, metalloid, metal salt, metal oxide and/or metal hydroxide. In certain embodiments, the base reacts in the chemical dissolution of a metal oxide (e.g., silica and/or alumina) and/or a metal hydroxide (e.g., silicon hydroxide and/or aluminum hydroxide).

In some cases, the acid and/or base are reacted in a precipitation reaction. In certain embodiments, the precipitation reaction comprises the combination of two dissolved ions to form a solid precipitate. In some embodiments, the solid precipitate comprises a metal hydroxide. Examples of suitable metal hydroxides include calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, barium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, manganese hydroxide, iron hydroxide, cobalt hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, cadmium hydroxide, lead hydroxide, and/or nickel hydroxide.

According to some embodiments, the base reacts in a precipitation reaction to form a metal hydroxide. In certain embodiments, the acid reacts in a precipitation reaction to form a metal hydroxide.

In certain embodiments, the reactor is operated intermittently while in the first mode (e.g., as described above). In some cases, the reactor is operated continuously in the first mode. In some cases, the reactor is operated intermittently in the first mode, while the reaction with the collected acid and or base (e.g., chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction) is performed continuously. For example, in some embodiments, when operating in the first mode, the reactor produces enough acid and/or base such that it only needs to be operated intermittently to produce enough acid and/or base to perform the reaction (e.g., a chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction) continuously.

In some embodiments, the desired chemical reaction is carried out by collecting electrolytically-produced solutions or suspensions of different compositions, and using the solution or solution to produce the product from the reactants in a portion of the reactor or in a separate device. For example, fig. 4A-4B illustrate reactors in which an electrolyzer produces low pH and high pH solutions that flow to separate regions of the reactor or to separate reactors, according to certain embodiments. According to some embodiments, the acidic solution is used to dissolve CaCO in the first compartment₃Thereby releasing CO in the process₂Gas (see fig. 4B). In the second chamber, in some embodiments, the dissolved solution reacts with the alkaline solution produced by the electrolytic cell to produce ca (oh)₂(see FIG. 4B). In some embodiments, the two chambers are reservoirs for acidic solutions and for basic solutions. In certain embodiments, the acid storage tank comprises a polymeric material or a glass liner. In some embodiments, the base reservoir comprises a polymeric material or a metal. In some embodiments, the metal tank comprises iron or steel.

In some cases, the by-products of the precipitation reaction are fed back into the system (e.g., the first reactor). In some cases, the system is configured to feed the byproduct from the precipitation reaction into the system (e.g., the first reactor). In some embodiments, the byproduct has a neutral pH. For example, in some cases, the pH of the byproduct is greater than 6, greater than or equal to 6.25, greater than or equal to 6.5, greater than or equal to 6.75, or greater than or equal to 6.9. In some cases, the pH of the byproduct is less than 8, less than or equal to 7.75, less than or equal to 7.5, less than or equal to 7.25, or less than or equal to 7.1. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than 6 and less than 8, or greater than or equal to 6.9 and less than or equal to 7.1). In some embodiments, the pH of the byproduct is 7.

In some cases, the by-product comprises an alkali metal halide (e.g., a by-product in the precipitation of an alkali metal hydroxide) (e.g., NaCl). In some cases, the by-product comprises an alkali metal salt (e.g., NaClO)₄、NaNO₃Sodium triflate and/or sodium acetate).

In some embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in the second mode. In some cases, the polarity of the reactor in the second mode is opposite compared to the polarity of the reactor in the first mode. According to some embodiments, operating the reactor in the first mode uses more electricity than operating the reactor in the second mode. For example, in certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the first mode uses at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, or at least 40% more electricity than operating the reactor in the second mode. In some cases, operating the reactor in the first mode uses less than or equal to 50%, less than or equal to 40%, less than or equal to 30%, or less than or equal to 20% more electricity than operating the reactor in the second mode. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., at least 10% and less than or equal to 50%). Any of the embodiments related to the second mode may be applied to any of the systems described herein.

In some embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises adding a base to the reactor near the second electrode. For example, in certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises adding a base to the reactor in a manner such that the base can be used for the electrochemical reaction of the second electrode. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises adding a base near the second electrode 105. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises adding a base near the second electrode 105. According to some embodiments, when the reactor is operating in the first mode, the base added to the reactor is collected from near the first electrode and stored until the reactor is operating in the second mode. In certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises oxidizing the added base (e.g., the base that has been stored) near the second electrode to produce oxygen. For example, in some cases, operating the reactor in the second mode includes oxidizing the added base to oxygen through the second electrode.

In certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises adding an acid to the reactor near the first electrode. For example, in certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises adding acid to the reactor in a manner such that the acid can be used for the electrochemical reaction of the first electrode. For example, referring to fig. 1A, in some embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode includes adding an acid proximate the first electrode 104. Similarly, referring to fig. 2A, in certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode includes adding an acid proximate the first electrode 104. According to some embodiments, the acid added to the reactor is collected from near the second electrode and stored while the reactor is operating in the first mode until the reactor is operating in the second mode. In certain embodiments, operating the reactor in the second mode comprises reducing the added acid (e.g., the acid that has been stored) near the first electrode to produce hydrogen gas. For example, in some cases, operating the reactor in the second mode includes reducing the added acid to hydrogen gas through the first electrode.

In contrast, in some embodiments, operating the reactor in the first mode includes adding a near neutral input solution to the reactor. In some cases, the pH of the near neutral input solution is greater than 6, greater than or equal to 6.25, greater than or equal to 6.5, greater than or equal to 6.75, or greater than or equal to 6.9. In some cases, the pH of the near-neutral input solution is less than 8, less than or equal to 7.75, less than or equal to 7.5, less than or equal to 7.25, or less than or equal to 7.1. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than 6 and less than 8, or greater than or equal to 6.9 and less than or equal to 7.1). In some embodiments, the pH of the near neutral input solution is 7. In certain embodiments, the near neutral input solution comprises a salt. Examples of suitable salts include alkali metal sulfates, alkali metal chlorates, alkali metal halides, alkali metal nitrates, alkali metal perchlorates, alkali metal acetates, alkali metal nitrites, and/or alkali metal triflates.

In some embodiments, it may be advantageous to operate the reactor in the second mode instead of the first mode when the cost of electricity is high and/or when electricity is scarce. For example, in certain embodiments, if electricity is purchased from a power provider, the cost of electricity and/or the availability of electricity (availabilities) from the power provider may fluctuate, and it may be advantageous to operate the reactor in the first mode when the cost of electricity is low and/or the availability of electricity is high and then operate the reactor in the second mode when the cost of electricity is high and/or the availability of electricity is low. As another example, in certain embodiments, if the electricity is from a renewable energy source, such as solar or wind energy, there may be fluctuations in the availability of electricity, such that it may be advantageous to operate the reactor in a first mode when the availability of electricity is high (e.g., during the day for solar energy and/or during the summer or during periods of high winds for wind energy) and then in a second mode when the availability of electricity is low (e.g., during the night for solar energy and/or during the winter or during periods of no significant winds). In some cases, the reactor is operated in a first mode when the cost of electricity is a first cost and the availability of electricity is a first availability, and in a second mode when the cost of electricity is a second cost and the availability of electricity is a second availability, wherein the second cost is greater than the first cost (e.g., by at least 10%, 25%, 50%, or 100%) and/or the first availability is greater than the second availability (e.g., by at least 10%, 25%, 50%, or 100%).

In some embodiments, the collection is at least partially during periods of high electrical availability and/or low electrical costAnd/or storing the acidic and/or alkaline solution produced by the electrolytic reactor, thereby allowing CO production to be carried out during periods of reduced or low electrolyzer operation or electrical availability and/or high electrical costs₂A chemical dissolution reaction in an acid and a chemical precipitation reaction in a base. In some embodiments, the storage of the acidic and basic solutions functions as a chemical storage, allowing the production of chemical reaction products, which may typically be solid, liquid, or gas, to be less variable, or even, as compared to the rate of production of the electrolytic cell. In some embodiments, the size or volume of the stored acidic or basic solution allows chemical reaction products to be produced at a rate that does not completely deplete the stored acidic or basic solution during periods of reduced or low electrolyzer operation or electrical availability and/or high electrical costs. In some embodiments, a system comprises a source of electrically variable power, the electrolyzer, and the chemical storage tank and chemical reactor. In some embodiments, the method includes operating such a system to produce a less variable, or constant or relatively constant, stream of chemical reaction products from a more variable or intermittent power source.

In certain embodiments, the methods comprise generating the acid and base in a low voltage mode (e.g., at a lower voltage than the high voltage mode described herein). Any of the embodiments related to the low voltage mode may be used with any of the systems disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the method does not produce oxygen and/or hydrogen. For example, in certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction that occurs in the low voltage mode may be the oxidation of hydrogen (H) at the second electrode₂→2H⁺+2e^-) And reducing the water at the first electrode (2H)₂O+2e^-→H₂+2OH^-) And therefore no oxygen is produced. In another example, in certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction that occurs in the low voltage mode may be the oxidation of water (2H) at the first electrode₂O→O₂+4H⁺+4e^-) And reducing oxygen (O) at the second electrode₂+2H₂O+4e^-→4OH^-) And thus no hydrogen gas is generated.

For purposes of illustration, some exemplary systems are described below.

The system 1: for producing low cost H at a constant rate using intermittent renewable energy₂Exemplary system of

According to some embodiments, a system may include a reactor including a region including a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In some embodiments, the reactor may comprise a first electrode and a second electrode, one or more inlets to supply liquid and/or gas that undergoes one or more electrolytic reactions, and a separate device of the reactor in which a portion of the solution is stored after undergoing an electrolytic reaction or in which the solution is stored after undergoing an electrolytic reaction.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in a first mode (e.g., a high voltage mode, as shown in fig. 5A-5B); wherein the first mode comprises: generating a base in the vicinity of the first electrode; generating an acid in the reactor proximate a second electrode electrochemically coupled to the first electrode; collecting the acid and/or base; and reacting the collected acid and/or base in a chemical dissolution and/or in a precipitation reaction.

In certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction may produce H₂、O₂An acidic solution and a basic solution. This is an example of a high voltage mode, which requires a higher voltage than a low voltage mode. One non-limiting example of an electrolytic reaction that occurs in the high voltage mode is the oxidation of water (2H) at the second electrode₂O→O₂+4H⁺+4e^-) And reducing the water at the first electrode (2H)₂O+2e^-→H₂+2OH^-) (ii) a The reaction required a minimum voltage of 2V when the pH at the second electrode was 0 and the pH at the first electrode was 14 (see fig. 5A to 5B). In certain embodiments, the acidic solution and the basic solution produced at the electrode may be separately collected and stored.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises operating the reactor in a second mode (e.g., a low voltage mode, as shown in fig. 6A-6B). In some embodiments, the polarity of the reactor in the second mode is opposite compared to the polarity of the reactor in the first mode. In some embodiments, the second mode comprises adding the collected and/or stored base to the reactor in the vicinity of the second electrode. In certain embodiments, the second mode comprises oxidizing the added base in the vicinity of the second electrode to generate oxygen. In some embodiments, the second mode comprises adding the collected and/or stored acid to the reactor in the vicinity of the first electrode. In certain embodiments, the second mode comprises reducing the added acid in the vicinity of the first electrode to produce hydrogen gas.

In certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction may be in the production of H₂And O₂While neutralizing the acidic solution and the alkaline solution. This is an example of a low voltage mode, which requires a lower voltage than the aforementioned high voltage mode. One non-limiting example of an electrolytic reaction that occurs in the low voltage mode is the oxidation of hydroxyl ions (4 OH) at the second electrode (e.g., anode)^-→O₂+2H₂O+4e^-) And reducing protons (2H) at a first electrode (e.g., cathode)⁺+2e^-→H₂) (ii) a The reaction required a minimum voltage of 0.4V when the pH at the second electrode was 14 and the pH at the first electrode was 0 (see fig. 6A to 6B). In certain embodiments, the inlet of the reactor may supply a solution having a pH greater than 8 to the second electrode and a solution having a pH less than 6 to the first electrode.

In certain embodiments, different reactors may be operated in a high voltage mode and a low voltage mode. In another embodiment, a single reactor may be configured such that it may be operated in a high voltage mode or in a low voltage mode. In some embodiments, the reactor can be switched from a high voltage mode to a low voltage mode by changing the pH of the liquid flowing to the electrodes. For example, to switch from a high voltage mode to a low voltage mode, a basic solution may be introduced to the second electrode, while an acidic solution may be introduced to the first electrode.

In some embodiments, in high voltage mode (e.g., generating H)₂/O₂Co-generation of acid/base) and lowVoltage patterns (e.g., generating H)₂/O₂While neutralizing the acid/base) may be based on the cost or availability of electricity, which may fluctuate throughout the day, month, or year. In certain embodiments, the reactor may be operated in a high voltage mode (e.g., in the production of H) when the cost of electricity is below a certain value₂、O₂More power is consumed at the same time as acid and base); when the cost of electricity is above a certain value, the reactor may be operated in a low voltage mode (e.g., using an acidic solution and a basic solution to produce H₂And O₂While consuming less power). In some embodiments, the system may effectively mediate the production of H₂The electricity cost of (c): when electricity is cheap, the system uses more electricity by operating in a high voltage mode, where some of the cheap electrical energy is converted into chemical energy that can be physically stored (e.g., in the form of acidic and basic solutions); when electricity is expensive, the system can use less electricity by operating in a low voltage mode where stored chemical energy (e.g., acidic and basic solutions) can be used to reduce the production of H₂And O₂The required energy. In some embodiments, the system may be used to reduce the production of H₂And O₂The cost of electricity. In some embodiments, the system may be used to produce hydrogen and oxygen at a constant rate using electricity that fluctuates in price or availability.

FIG. 7 shows a system in which the system will produce H using intermittent renewable electricity₂Is reduced by 20% of the energy cost. In this example, the cost of renewable energy fluctuates between $ 0.02/kWh and $ 0.07/kWh (according to the typical wind turbine's energy generation rate for a typical day). At a fixed voltage (1.2V, 32kWh/kg H)₂) The cost of electricity for running a 1kW alkaline or PEM electrolyzer is shown in figure 7 versus time. Fig. 7 also shows, according to some embodiments, a high voltage mode (2V, 54kWh/kg H) when the cost of electricity is below average ($ 0.05/kWh)₂) Operation and low voltage mode (0.4V, 10kWh/kg H) when the cost of electricity is higher than average₂) Energy costs of operating variable voltage electrolyzers. In this example, twoThe electrolysis cells produce H at the same rate₂And using the same amount of energy on average (32kWh/kg H)₂) However, the energy costs of running the two tanks are different. In this example, the variable voltage electrolyzer cell uses less expensive electricity (by operating in a low voltage mode) and more inexpensive electricity (by operating in a high voltage mode). In this example, the average energy cost of a fixed voltage electrolyzer is $ 0.05/kWh, and the average energy cost of a variable voltage electrolyzer is $ 0.04/kWh (20% less). Note that according to some embodiments, the amount of cost savings possible in a variable voltage electrolyzer is proportional to the magnitude of the cost fluctuations: the greater the change in electrical costs, the greater the cost savings.

And (3) system 2: exemplary System for Co-production of Low cost Hydrogen and acid/base solutions Using intermittent renewable Electricity

According to some embodiments, a system may include a reactor including a region including a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In some embodiments, the reactor may include a first electrode and a second electrode, one or more inlets to supply liquids and/or gases that undergo one or more electrolytic reactions, and a separate device of the reactor in which a portion of the solution is stored after undergoing an electrolytic reaction or in which the solution is stored after undergoing an electrolytic reaction. In some embodiments, the electrolysis reaction may produce a pH of less than about 6 in the vicinity of the second electrode and a pH of greater than about 8 in the vicinity of the first electrode; the high pH solution and the low pH solution may be collected and stored separately. In some embodiments, the electrodes may be configured to perform one or more electrolysis reactions to produce a high pH solution or a low pH solution.

In certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction may produce H₂、O₂An acidic solution and a basic solution. This is an example of a high voltage mode, which requires a higher voltage than a low voltage mode. One non-limiting example of an electrolytic reaction that occurs in the high voltage mode is the oxidation of water (2H) at the second electrode (e.g., anode)₂O→O₂+4H⁺+4e^-) And reducing water (2H) at a first electrode (e.g., cathode)₂O+2e^-→H₂+2OH^-) (ii) a The reaction required a minimum voltage of 2V when the pH at the second electrode was 0 and the pH at the first electrode was 14 (see fig. 5A to 5B). In certain embodiments, the acidic solution and the basic solution produced at the electrode may be separately collected and stored.

In certain embodiments, the reactor may sometimes produce acidic and basic solutions in a low voltage mode requiring a lower voltage than the high voltage mode. Non-limiting examples of the electrolysis reaction that generates the acidic solution and the alkaline solution in the low voltage mode include the following.

In certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction that occurs in the low voltage mode may be the oxidation of hydrogen (H) at a second electrode (e.g., an anode)₂→2H⁺+2e^-) And reducing water (2H) at a first electrode (e.g., cathode)₂O+2e^-→H₂+2OH^-) (e.g., HRR/HER response); the reaction required a minimum voltage of 0.8V when the pH at the second electrode was 0 and the pH at the first electrode was 14 (see fig. 8A to 8B).

In certain embodiments, the electrolytic reaction that occurs in the low voltage mode can be the oxidation of water (2H) at the second electrode (e.g., anode)₂O→O₂+4H⁺+4e^-) And reducing oxygen (O) at a first electrode (e.g., cathode)₂+2H₂O+4e^-→4OH^-) (e.g., OER/ORR reaction); the reaction required a minimum voltage of 0.8V when the pH at the second electrode was 0 and the pH at the first electrode was 14 (see fig. 9A to 9B).

In some embodiments, in the high voltage mode (e.g., acid/base generation and co-production of H)₂/O₂) Or the transition between low voltage modes (e.g., generating acid/base without producing a net amount of gas) may be based on the cost or availability of electricity, which may fluctuate throughout the day, month, or year. In certain embodiments, the reactor may be operated in a high voltage mode (e.g., in the production of H) when the cost of electricity is below a certain value₂、O₂More power is consumed with acid and base). In certain embodiments, when the cost of electricity is above a certain value, the reactor may be operated in a low voltage mode (e.g., consuming less power, producing only acid and base).

In some embodiments, the system can produce H by co-production₂And O₂And acidic and alkaline solutions to take advantage of the low electricity price: when electricity is cheap, the system can use more electricity by running in high voltage mode, which generates acid, base, H₂And O₂(ii) a When electricity is expensive, the system can use less electricity by operating in a low voltage mode, which produces acid and base, but does not produce a net amount of H₂Or O₂. In some embodiments, the system is used to reduce the production of H₂And O₂The cost of electricity.

And (3) system: exemplary System for producing Low cost acid/base at constant Rate Using intermittent renewable energy

According to some embodiments, a system may include a reactor including a region including a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In some embodiments, the reactor may include a first electrode and a second electrode, one or more inlets to supply liquids and/or gases that undergo one or more electrolytic reactions, and a separate device of the reactor in which a portion of the solution is stored after undergoing an electrolytic reaction or in which the solution is stored after undergoing an electrolytic reaction. In some embodiments, the electrolysis reaction may produce a pH of less than about 6 in the vicinity of the second electrode and a pH of greater than about 8 in the vicinity of the first electrode; the high pH solution and the low pH solution may be collected and stored separately. In some embodiments, the electrodes may be configured to perform one or more electrolysis reactions to produce a high pH solution or a low pH solution.

In certain embodiments, the electrolysis reaction may produce H₂、O₂An acidic solution and a basic solution. This is an example of the electrolysis mode because it requires a higher voltage than the fuel cell mode which will be described later. Occurring in electrolytic modeOne non-limiting example of an electrolysis reaction is the oxidation of water (2H) at a second electrode (e.g., an anode)₂O→O₂+4H^-+4e^-) And reducing water (2H) at a first electrode (e.g., cathode)₂O+2e^-→H₂+2OH^-) (ii) a When the pH at the second electrode is 0 and the pH at the first electrode is 14, a minimum voltage of 2V is required for the reaction (see fig. 5A to 5B). In certain embodiments, the acidic solution and the basic solution produced at the electrode may be separately collected and stored.

In certain embodiments, the reaction occurring in the fuel cell mode may be the oxidation of hydrogen (H) at the second electrode (e.g., anode)₂→2H⁺+2e^-) And reducing oxygen (O) at a first electrode (e.g., cathode)₂+2H₂O+4e^-→4OH^-) (e.g., HRR/ORR reaction); this causes a spontaneous reaction that generates energy (see fig. 10A to 10B).

In some embodiments, the system may effectively reconcile the cost of electricity to produce the acidic and basic solutions: when electricity is cheap, the system can use more electricity by running in electrolysis mode, where some of the cheap electrical energy is converted to electricity that can be physically stored (in H)₂And O₂In the form of a gas); when electricity is expensive, the system can use less electricity by operating in fuel cell mode, where stored chemical energy (H) can be used₂And O₂Gas) for generating acid, base and electricity. In some embodiments, the system is used to reduce the cost of electricity for generating the acid and base solutions. In some embodiments, the system is used to produce acidic and basic solutions at a constant rate using electricity that fluctuates in price or availability.

In some embodiments, the chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reaction occurs inside the reactor.

According to certain embodiments, the reactor comprises a spatially varying chemical composition gradient between the first electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the spatially varying chemical composition gradient comprises a spatially varying pH gradient. For example, referring to fig. 2B, in some cases, the system 200 includes a basic region 106 near the first electrode 104 and an acidic region 107 near the second electrode 105; thus, the system 200 includes a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) between the first electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the first region comprises an acidic region. In certain embodiments, the second region comprises a basic region. In other embodiments, the first region comprises a basic region and the second region comprises an acidic region.

In some embodiments, the reactor is configured such that a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) is established and/or maintained, at least in part, by electrolysis. For example, referring to fig. 2B, in some cases, system 200 includes a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) that includes basic region 106 and acidic region 107. In some such embodiments, the spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) is established and/or maintained by electrolysis. According to some embodiments, electrolysis of the neutral electrolyte may produce a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) between the electrodes (e.g., first electrode 104 and second electrode 105). In some embodiments, an electrolysis reaction is used to create a chemical composition gradient between a positive electrode and a negative electrode of an electrochemical cell.

According to certain embodiments, the desired chemical reaction may be carried out using an electrolytically generated chemical composition gradient by: the reactants are fed to a chemical environment near one electrode and products are produced from the reactants as they diffuse, or components thereof, toward the other electrode using an electrolytically-generated chemical composition gradient.

In some embodiments, electrolysis comprises hydrolysis. As used herein, hydrolysis refers to the electrolysis of water. For example, in some embodiments, the reaction occurring in the cathode will be 2H₂Conversion of O molecule and 2 electrons to H₂And 2OH^-At the same timeThe reaction taking place in the anode will be 2H₂Conversion of O molecule to 4 electrons, O₂And 4 protons. In some embodiments, the generation of hydroxide ions near the first electrode 104 establishes and/or maintains an alkaline pH near the first electrode 104, establishing and/or maintaining the alkaline region 106, while the generation of protons near the second electrode 105 establishes an acidic pH near the second electrode 105, establishing and/or maintaining the acidic region 107. Thus, in certain embodiments, the reactor is configured such that a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient) is established and/or maintained, at least in part, by hydrolysis.

According to certain embodiments, the reactor comprises an inlet connected to a first region (e.g., an acidic region) of a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In certain embodiments, the electrochemical reactor and/or the outlet is configured to receive a solid (e.g., CaCO)₃)。

In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a reactor outlet. In some embodiments, the reactor outlet is configured to discharge Ca (OH)₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (CaO). In some embodiments, the reactor comprises an outlet connected to a second region (e.g., a basic region) of a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In certain embodiments, the outlet is configured such that solids can be discharged from the reactor. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a solids-handling device associated with the outlet and configured to remove solids from the reactor. For example, in some embodiments, the solids processing apparatus is configured to remove solids (e.g., solid metal hydroxides such as solid nickel hydroxide, solid calcium hydroxide, or solid magnesium hydroxide) from the reactor. Examples of solids handling equipment include, but are not limited to, conveyors, drills, pumps, tanks, or any other device capable of transporting solids away from the reactor. In some embodiments, the solids processing apparatus utilizes one or a combination of fluid flow, filtration, sedimentation, centrifugal force, electrophoresis, dielectrophoresis, or magnetic separation to separate solids from liquidsSeparating.

In some embodiments, the reactor comprises more than one reactor outlet (e.g., at least 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, less than or equal to 5, less than or equal to 4, less than or equal to 3, or less than or equal to 2; combinations of these ranges are also possible). In certain embodiments, the reactor comprises a second outlet.

In certain embodiments, the second outlet is configured to discharge gas (e.g., CO)₂、O₂And/or H₂). In some cases, the CO is mixed with₂Sequestration for liquid fuels, for oxygenated fuels, for enhanced oil recovery, for the production of dry ice and/or for use as an ingredient in beverages. In some embodiments, O is₂Sequestration, use as an oxygenate, for CCS applications and/or for enhanced oil recovery. In some cases, H is₂Sequestered and/or used as fuel (e.g., in fuel cells and/or in heating systems). In some embodiments, the CO to be emitted by the system₂、O₂And/or H₂Is fed into the kiln (e.g., at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 90%, or all).

In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a third outlet and/or a fourth outlet. In some cases, the second outlet, the third outlet, and/or the fourth outlet are configured to emit CO₂、O₂And/or H₂. For example, in some cases, the second outlet is configured to emit CO₂And O₂And the third outlet is configured to discharge H₂. In some cases, the second outlet is configured to emit CO₂And the third outlet is configured to discharge O₂And the fourth outlet is configured to discharge H₂。

According to some embodiments, the reactor further comprises one or more membranes selectively permeable to ions between the first electrode and the second electrode. In certain embodiments, the one or more membranes that are selectively permeable to ions comprise two membranes that are selectively permeable to ions. In certain embodiments, the two membranes that are selectively permeable to ions are different from each other.

In some embodiments, the one or more membranes that are selectively permeable to ions are configured to prevent solids from precipitating on the first electrode, to prevent solids from passivating the first electrode, and/or to prevent two different solids from contaminating one another. According to certain embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane allows ions to pass while restricting (or excluding) the passage of solids. For example, in some embodiments, the metal ion (e.g., Ca)²⁺) Can be passed through a solid metal salt (e.g., a solid metal carbonate, such as solid CaCO)₃) Or precipitates (e.g., solid metal hydroxides, such as solid Ca (OH)₂) Is restricted (or cannot pass at all).

In some embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane allows ions to pass through but limits (or excludes) passage of non-ionic compounds. In certain embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane allows ions to pass at a first rate and allows non-ionic compounds to pass at a second rate that is slower than the first rate. In some embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane allows certain ions to pass through but limits (or excludes) other ions from passing through. In certain embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane allows certain ions to pass at a first rate and other ions to pass at a second rate that is slower than the first rate. In some embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane may allow certain metal ions to pass through but limits (or excludes) other ions (or allows certain metal ions to pass through faster than other ions), may allow H to pass through⁺By passing but limiting (or excluding) OH^-By (or allowing H)⁺Than OH^-Faster pass), OH may be allowed^-By but not limited to (or excluding) H⁺By (or allowing OH)^-Ratio H⁺Faster passage), metal ions may be allowed to pass but H is limited (or excluded)⁺And/or OH^-By (or allowing the metal ion ratio H)⁺And/or OH^-Faster pass) and/or may allow H⁺And/or OH^-Ion passing but restricting (or excluding) metal ion passing (orAllowing H⁺And/or OH^-Ions pass faster than metal ions).

For example, in some embodiments, the selectively ion permeable membrane is OH permeable^-Ion but relatively less permeable to Ca²⁺Ion, while the membrane selectively permeable to ions is permeable to Ca²⁺Ionic but relatively less permeable to OH^-Ions. In this example, Ca from the first region (e.g., the acidic region)²⁺May diffuse through the selectively ion permeable membrane into the separation chamber, but may not diffuse through the selectively ion permeable membrane into the second zone (e.g., the alkaline zone). Further, in this example, OH from the second region (e.g., the basic region)^-Ions may diffuse through the selectively ion permeable membrane into the separation chamber, but may not diffuse through the selectively ion permeable membrane. Thus, in this example, Ca²⁺And OH^-Will only be able to react in a separate chamber to form solid Ca (OH)₂Thereby preventing solid Ca (OH)₂Formed on the cathode or anode. Thus, in some embodiments, one or more membranes that are selectively permeable to ions can prevent solids (e.g., solid metal hydroxides, such as solid ca (oh))₂) Precipitating on the first electrode (e.g., cathode) to prevent solids (e.g., solid metal hydroxides, such as solid Ca (OH))₂) Passivating a first electrode (e.g., a cathode); and/or preventing two different solids-compounds (e.g., metal salts, such as solid metal carbonates, e.g., solid calcium carbonate) and precipitates (e.g., solid hydroxides, such as solid metal hydroxides, e.g., solid Ca (OH))₂) Contaminate one another.

In certain embodiments, the reactor is intended to produce calcined or decomposed minerals or metal salts (e.g., metal carbonates) by electrochemical and chemical means. In some embodiments, the use of fossil fuels for the production of thermal energy, and associated greenhouse gases (e.g., CO), is reduced or avoided by using such reactors instead of conventional thermal calcination, which includes heating minerals or metal salts to decompose them₂) Or the generation of gases as atmospheric contaminants.

Certain aspects relate to systems for producing cement. In some embodiments, the system comprises a reactor. In certain embodiments, the reactor comprises any one or combination of the reactor embodiments disclosed above or elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, a system (e.g., any of the systems described herein) comprises a kiln. For example, referring to fig. 1F, in some embodiments, a system includes an electrochemical reactor and a kiln 150. Similarly, referring to fig. 2D, in certain embodiments, a system includes an electrochemical reactor and a kiln 150. In some embodiments, the kiln comprises a kiln inlet. According to some embodiments, the kiln is directly attached to a reactor and/or a device (e.g., a device configured to react an acid and/or a base in a precipitation reaction). A kiln (e.g., any kiln described herein) may be used with any system described herein.

According to some embodiments, the kiln is downstream of the reactor, the reactor outlet, and/or one or more devices. According to certain embodiments, the system further comprises a heater between the reactor, the reactor outlet, and/or the one or more devices and the kiln inlet. Examples of the heater include a device that heats or dehydrates a substance placed inside thereof. In some embodiments, the reactor outlet is directly attached to the kiln inlet.

As used herein, when a first unit and a second unit are connected to each other and the composition of the material transferred between the units does not substantially change (i.e., no component changes by more than 5% in relative abundance) when the material is transported from the first unit to the second unit, there is direct attachment between the first unit and the second unit (and the two units are considered "directly attached" to each other). As one illustrative example, a conduit connecting a first unit and a second unit and in which the pressure and temperature of the contents of the conduit are adjusted without changing the composition of the contents is considered to attach the first unit and the second unit directly. On the other hand, if the separation step is performed and/or a chemical reaction is performed such that the composition of the contents of the conduit is significantly altered during the passage from the first unit to the second unit, the conduit will not be considered to directly connect the first unit and the second unit. In some embodiments, two units directly attached to each other are configured such that there is no phase change of the material when the material is transported from the first unit to the second unit.

In certain embodiments, the kiln inlet is configured to receive at least a portion of the solid calcium hydroxide and/or solid calcium oxide derived from at least a portion of the solid calcium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, calcium hydroxide is collected from the reactor, the reactor outlet, and/or the more devices and the reactor, the reactor outlet, and/or the more devices are directly attached to the kiln inlet such that the kiln inlet is configured to receive at least a portion of the solid calcium hydroxide. In certain embodiments, calcium hydroxide is collected from the reactor, reactor outlet, and/or more devices and delivered to the heater. In some embodiments, the heater converts calcium hydroxide, in whole or in part, to calcium oxide. In some embodiments, the kiln inlet is configured to receive at least a portion of the solid calcium hydroxide and/or solid calcium oxide derived from at least a portion of the solid calcium hydroxide from the heater.

According to some embodiments, the kiln is configured to heat ca (oh)₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (e.g., solid calcium oxide) and/or reaction products thereof as part of a cement manufacturing process. In some embodiments, heating Ca (OH) as part of a cement manufacturing process₂And/or lime comprises adding Ca (OH) to the lime in a kiln₂And/or lime is heated with other compounds. For example, Ca (OH) can be introduced into the kiln₂And/or lime with SiO₂Or other minerals.

In certain instances, the system has a lower net carbon emission (e.g., at least 10% lower, at least 25% lower, at least 50% lower, at least 75% lower, or at least 90% lower) than a substantially similar system using conventional thermal calcination instead of an electrochemical reactor. In some cases, the system has net zero carbon emissions.

Certain aspects and methods of forming a precipitate in a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). According to some embodiments, the method is performed in a reactor and/or system or a combination thereof as described in connection with any of the embodiments disclosed above or elsewhere herein.

According to some embodiments, the method comprises delivering a compound (e.g., a metal salt) to a first region (e.g., an acidic region) of a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In certain embodiments, the metal salt comprises a metal carbonate. According to some embodiments, the metal carbonate comprises calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate and/or nickel carbonate. For example, according to some embodiments, the method comprises delivering calcium carbonate to a first region of a spatially varying pH gradient (e.g., an acidic region).

According to certain embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) is dissolved and/or reacted in a liquid within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). Non-limiting examples of liquids include non-aqueous solutions or aqueous solutions. Examples of the non-aqueous solution include a solution containing a non-aqueous solvent and an electrolyte salt and/or a solution containing an ionic liquid. Examples of the aqueous solution include a solution containing water and an electrolyte salt. Examples of electrolyte salts include NaSO₄And NaClO₄. In some embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) is dissolved and reacted within a liquid within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). For example, in some embodiments, the calcium carbonate is dissolved and/or reacted within a liquid within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate is dissolved and reacted within a liquid within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). For example, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) (e.g., calcium carbonate) is added to the first region (e.g., the acidic region), and the compound (e.g., the metal salt) (e.g., calcium carbonate) is reacted with the protons in the first region (e.g., the acidic region) such that the compound (e.g., the metal salt) (e.g.,calcium carbonate) to form one or more elements such as metals (e.g., to form Ca)²⁺And HCO^3-Or Ca²⁺And H₂CO₃). In some embodiments, one or more elements (e.g., metals, such as Ca) are reacted²⁺) Move to a second region (e.g., an alkaline region) where the one or more elements react with hydroxide ions in the second region (e.g., the alkaline region) to form a precipitate (e.g., a metal precipitate, such as ca (oh))₂)。

In some embodiments, the first region comprises an acidic region. In certain embodiments, the second region comprises a basic region. According to some embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) is dissolved in an acidic region and one or more elements (e.g., a metal, such as Ca) are dissolved²⁺) In the alkaline region. In other embodiments, the first region comprises a basic region. In some embodiments, the second region comprises an acidic region. According to certain embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) is dissolved in the basic region and one or more elements (e.g., a metal, such as Ca)²⁺) In the acidic region.

According to some embodiments, the method comprises collecting the precipitate from a second region (e.g., a basic region) of a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In certain embodiments, the precipitate comprises a metal precipitate, such as a metal hydroxide. Non-limiting examples of metal hydroxides include nickel hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and magnesium hydroxide. For example, in the examples given above, one or more elements (e.g., metals, such as Ca) are reacted²⁺) Move to a second region (e.g., an alkaline region) where the one or more elements react with hydroxide ions in the second region (e.g., the alkaline region) to form a precipitate (e.g., a metal precipitate, such as ca (oh))₂). Thus, in some embodiments, the method comprises a basic region that is graded from a spatially varying chemical composition (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient)Collecting solid calcium hydroxide. Non-limiting examples of ways in which one or more elements (e.g., metals) can be moved to the second region (e.g., the alkaline region) include diffusion, transport by convection, and/or transport by flow.

According to certain embodiments, the precipitate comprises one or more elements (e.g., metals) from a compound (e.g., a metal salt) that dissolves and/or reacts within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient). In some embodiments, the one or more elements comprise a metallic element. As used herein, metal refers to a metal-containing metal or metal ion. In some embodiments, the precipitate comprises metal cations from a metal salt dissolved and/or reacted within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient), and the metal cations are ionically bonded to anions within the precipitate. For example, in certain embodiments, the solid calcium hydroxide comprises calcium from calcium carbonate that dissolves and/or reacts within a spatially varying chemical composition gradient (e.g., a spatially varying pH gradient).

According to certain embodiments, the method is a method of making cement.

According to certain embodiments, the method comprises heating Ca (OH) in a kiln₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (e.g., solid calcium oxide) and/or reactant products thereof to produce cement. In some embodiments, this includes removing the calcium hydroxide from the reactor and placing it directly into the kiln. Alternatively, in certain embodiments, there is a step between collecting the calcium hydroxide and heating in the kiln (heater). In some embodiments, the heater converts calcium hydroxide to its calcium oxide, and then the calcium hydroxide and/or calcium oxide is heated in the kiln. In some embodiments, the heater converts 100% (by weight) of the calcium hydroxide to its calcium oxide and heats only the calcium oxide in the kiln. In other embodiments, the heater will be 10% or more, 20% or more, 30% or more, 40% or more, 50% or more, up to 90%, up to 95%, or moreTo 99% (by weight) of the calcium hydroxide is converted to calcium oxide. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., 10% to 100% (by weight), inclusive). In some embodiments, both calcium hydroxide and calcium oxide are heated in the kiln. Examples of the heater include a device that heats or dehydrates a substance placed inside thereof.

In some embodiments, Ca (OH) is heated in a kiln₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (e.g., solid calcium oxide) and/or reactant products thereof to produce cement includes adding s Ca (OH) in a kiln₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (e.g., solid calcium oxide) and/or reactant products thereof are heated with other compounds. For example, Ca (OH) can be introduced into the kiln₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (e.g., solid calcium oxide) and/or reactant products thereof with SiO₂Or other minerals.

In certain embodiments, Ca (OH) is heated in a kiln₂(e.g., solid calcium hydroxide) and/or lime (e.g., solid calcium oxide) and/or reactant products thereof are followed by subsequent steps prior to making cement. For example, in certain embodiments, the kiln is followed by a cooling step.

According to some embodiments, the method is part of a batch process. In certain embodiments, the precipitate (e.g., metal hydroxide, such as ca (oh))₂). According to certain embodiments, the process is carried out continuously. In some embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt, e.g., a metal carbonate such as CaCO)₃) Continuously or periodically added at the anode and/or the first region (e.g., the acidic region). In certain embodiments, the precipitate (e.g., metal hydroxide, such as ca (oh))₂). Collecting the precipitate (e.g., metal hydroxides such as Ca (OH)₂) Non-limiting examples of (a) include collecting the precipitate with a flow stream and/or allowing the precipitate to deposit on a surface from which the precipitate is collected continuously or periodically.

According to some embodiments, the method producesA by-product other than the precipitate. For example, in some embodiments, the method produces a by-product that is different from solid calcium hydroxide and/or solid calcium oxide. In some embodiments, the by-product comprises CO₂、O₂And/or H₂. For example, in some embodiments, the hydrolysis is performed in a reactor, and the reaction occurring in the cathode will be 2H₂Conversion of O molecule and 2 electrons to H₂(g) And 2OH^-While the reaction taking place in the anode will be 2H₂Conversion of O molecules to O₂(g) 4 electrons and 4 protons. In certain embodiments, a compound (e.g., a metal salt) (e.g., a metal carbonate such as calcium carbonate) is added to a first region (e.g., an acidic region) and the compound (e.g., the metal salt) (e.g., the metal carbonate such as calcium carbonate) is reacted with protons in the first region (e.g., the acidic region) such that the compound (e.g., the metal salt) (e.g., the metal carbonate such as calcium carbonate) dissolves to form one or more elements (e.g., metals). In some embodiments, CaCO₃The net reaction with two protons results in the formation of H₂O、Ca²⁺And CO₂(g)。

According to certain embodiments, the method further comprises collecting the by-product. For example, in some embodiments, the by-product comprises CO₂、O₂And H₂. In certain embodiments, collecting the byproduct comprises collecting CO₂、O₂And H₂Each of (a); collecting CO only₂(ii) a Collecting only O₂(ii) a Collecting only H₂(ii) a CO Collection₂And O₂(ii) a CO Collection₂And H₂Or collecting O₂And H₂. For example, in certain embodiments, the by-product comprises CO₂And collecting the by-product comprises introducing CO₂And (7) sealing and storing.

According to some embodiments, the by-product is used as a fuel. In some embodiments, H may be substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, or alkoxy, or alkoxy, or alkoxy, or₂Used as fuel. Non-limiting examples include direct combustion H₂Or it may be used with a fuel such as natural gas. In some embodiments, O₂And CO₂For supporting the combustion of fuels such as fossil fuels. In some embodiments, the by-product is used as a kiln fuel. For example, in some embodiments, O is₂And CO₂To support combustion of fuels such as fossil fuels. In certain embodiments, H is reacted with₂、O₂And CO₂In a fuel cell such as a solid oxide fuel cell. In certain embodiments, H is reacted with₂And O₂In a fuel cell to produce electricity.

According to some embodiments, the reactors, systems, and methods described herein exhibit one or more beneficial properties and have one or more applications. For example, some embodiments of the reactors, systems, and methods described herein may be used to produce cement (e.g., portland cement). For example, in some embodiments, the reactor is used in place of calcination in a conventional cement manufacturing process.

Furthermore, certain embodiments of the reactors, systems, and methods described herein may be used to reduce atmospheric pollutants or greenhouse gases such as CO compared to conventional cement manufacturing processes₂Producing cement. Conventional cement manufacturing processes include the calcination of CaCO by thermal means₃It is about 60% CO₂Emission with about 40% CO₂The emissions result from the combustion of fossil fuels used to carry out the calcination process and the sintering process.

In some embodiments, ca (oh) produced by the methods, reactors, and/or systems described herein may be used₂To produce CaO for cement manufacture, replacing CaCO₃Conventional calcination to CaO. Ca (OH)₂Minimum energy requirement (71.2kJ/mol) for thermal dehydration to CaO to CaCO₃The thermal calcination (97.0kJ/mol) to CaO was 25% lower.

According to certain embodiments, the reactor and/or system is partially or wholly powered by renewable electricity (e.g., solar, wind, and/or hydroelectric).

According to certain embodiments, CO is generated₂、H₂And/or O₂By-products of (2)The by-products have many possible uses, including use in oxyfuel combustion, improving kiln efficiency, reducing NOx emissions, and/or use as flue gas suitable for Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS). Thus, in some embodiments, the by-products may be sold or used.

In one embodiment, the electrolytically-driven chemical reactor includes an electrolyzer for electrolyzing water. In some embodiments, such cells are at the cathode (where the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) occurs and OH is produced) when electrolysis is performed^-) Generates a high pH and at the anode (where an Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER) takes place and H is generated)⁺) Resulting in a low pH. Thus, according to certain embodiments, a gradient of pH is created between the cathode and the anode. In other such cells, other kinds of gradients may be created depending on the nature of the electrolysis reaction.

In one embodiment, the pH gradient is used to dissolve the metal carbonate at a low pH near the anode and to precipitate the metal hydroxide as the metal ions diffuse towards the higher pH environment at the cathode. In some such embodiments, as the metal carbonate dissolves near the anode, CO is produced₂Gas and metal cations of carbonate are generated in the solution. According to some such embodiments, these metal cations then diffuse or optionally are transported by convection or flow towards a high pH environment generated by the HER at the cathode. According to some embodiments, the metal ions are associated with OH generated at the cathode^-The reaction of the ions results in the precipitation of metal hydroxides. According to some embodiments, the electrochemical and chemical reactions and the overall reaction that occur at each electrode. Almost any metal carbonate or mixture of metal carbonates, non-limiting examples of which include CaCO, can be converted to one or more hydroxides thereof by such a process₃、MgCO₃And NiCO₃. In some such embodiments, hydrogen gas is released at the cathode and a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases is released at the anode while metal hydroxide is produced from the starting metal carbonate.

In one or more embodiments, the reactor is operated in a batch mode, whereby the product metal hydroxide is collected periodically. In one or more embodiments, the reactor is operated in a continuous manner such that additional metal carbonate is continuously or periodically added at the anode and precipitated metal hydroxide is continuously or periodically removed from the reaction zone. For example, the precipitated metal hydroxide may be removed from the reaction zone using a flow stream and collected, or the precipitate may be allowed to deposit on a surface from which it is continuously or periodically removed while the reactor is running continuously.

In some embodiments, it is advantageous to use or sell hydrogen and/or oxygen produced by an electrochemical reactor. In some embodiments, hydrogen is reacted with oxygen in a fuel cell to produce electricity. In some embodiments, to heat the reactor or kiln or furnace, hydrogen is combusted as a fuel or as a component of a fuel.

In some embodiments, the electricity used to perform the electrolytically-driven chemical reactor is generated from renewable energy sources (including, but not limited to, solar, wind, or hydroelectric).

In one embodiment, the electrochemically driven chemical reactor is used to react CaCO₃Decarbonization and generation of Ca (OH)₂As a precursor for the production of cement, such as portland cement. It is useful to compare the total energy consumption of both and to take into account the form of energy consumed and its carbon strength. For simplicity, it is assumed that the high temperature heat treatment that reacts CaO with aluminosilicates and other components to form portland cement is the same for both processes. Have considered passing CaCO₃Is subjected to thermal calcination and electrochemical decarburization followed by Ca (OH)₂The CaO produced by the thermal dehydration reaches the energy consumption of the same starting temperature of 900C. The energy/mole input for heating a reactant or product to a given temperature has been calculated from its heat capacity. The energy per mole used to carry out the decomposition reaction has been given as the standard free energy of the reaction (i.e., a gas partial pressure of 1 atmosphere).

In this example, it will be used for CaCO₃Energy per mole of thermal calcinationEr and for Ca (OH)₂Has a minimum energy requirement of 72.1 kJ/mole which is 25% lower relative to 97.0 kJ/mole. In this example, the electrochemical process also includes a decarbonization reaction, wherein CaCO₃Conversion to Ca (OH)₂The standard free energy was 74.3 kJ/mole; this is an additional energy consumption for the electrochemical process. However, this exemplary process, as well as the electrolysis reaction, may be powered by electricity from low or zero carbon renewable energy sources at a marginal electricity cost close to zero.

In this exemplary process, 237.1 kJ/mole is required to run the electrolysis reaction necessary for the reactor; however, this energy can also be produced firstly from low carbon sources and secondly hydrogen and oxygen are produced which can be used indirectly as value added products or can be used to power the cement manufacturing process, for example by using a fuel cell to provide electricity or by a combustion process to provide reaction heat. The energy generated can be used to run an electrolysis cell or to heat a high temperature kiln.

In some embodiments, calcium hydroxide (also referred to as slaked lime) and/or calcium oxide (which reacts with water to produce slaked lime) produced herein (e.g., from a precipitation reaction) may be used in applications including, but not limited to, paper making, flue gas treatment carbon capture, gypsum mixtures and masonry (including pozzolanic cements), soil stabilization, pH adjustment, water treatment, waste treatment, and sugar refining. The following are non-limiting examples of uses of calcium hydroxide (also known as slaked lime) and/or calcium oxide (also known as lime).

1. Metallurgical use

a) Ferrous metal

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make iron and/or steel. For example, in the manufacture of iron and/or steel, lime may be used as a flux to form a slag that prevents oxidation of the iron and/or steel and to remove impurities such as silica, phosphates, manganese, and sulfur. In some cases, hydrated lime (dry, or as a slurry) is used in the manufacture of iron and/or steel as a lubricant for drawing wires or rods through dies, as a coating on a casting mold to prevent sticking, and/or as a coating on a steel product to prevent corrosion. In some cases, lime or slaked lime is also used to neutralize the acidic waste.

b) Non-ferrous metal

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make non-ferrous metals including, but not limited to: copper, mercury, silver, gold, zinc, nickel, lead, aluminum, uranium, magnesium, and/or calcium. In some cases, lime may be used as a flux to remove impurities (e.g., silica, alumina, phosphates, carbonates, sulfur, sulfates) from the ore. For example, lime and hydrated lime can be used for flotation or recovery of non-ferrous metal ores. In some cases, lime acts as a settling aid to maintain proper alkalinity and/or remove impurities (e.g., sulfur and/or silicon). In some cases, hydrated lime is used to neutralize sulfur-containing gases and/or prevent the formation of sulfuric acid in the smelting and refining of copper, zinc, lead, and/or other non-ferrous metal ores. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime also acts as a coating on the metal to prevent reaction with the sulfur-containing species. In some instances, lime and/or hydrated lime is used to remove impurities (e.g., silica and/or carbonates) from bauxite ore and/or to adjust pH in the production of aluminum. In some cases, lime is used to maintain an alkaline pH to dissolve gold, silver, and/or nickel upon cyanide extraction. In the production of zinc, lime is used as a reducing agent in some cases. In some cases, in the production of metallic calcium and/or magnesium, magnesium oxide and/or calcium oxide is reduced at high temperature to form magnesium metal and/or calcium metal.

2. Construction of

a) Masonry (except Portland cement)

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used in the manufacture of masonry mortars, white paints, grouts, bricks, boards, and/or non-portland cements. In these applications, in certain embodiments, lime and/or hydrated lime may be mixed with other additives and exposed to carbon dioxide to produce calcium carbonate, the lime and/or hydrated lime may be reacted with other additives (e.g., aluminosilicates) to form a cement, and/or lime and/or hydrated lime may be used as a calcium source. In the case of mortars, plasters and white paints, in some cases lime and/or hydrated lime is mixed with additives and/or aggregates (e.g. sand) to form a paste/slurry which hardens as water evaporates and as the lime and/or hydrated lime reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate. In the case of hydraulic pozzolan cements, in some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime is reacted with aluminates, silicates, and/or other pozzolanic materials (e.g., powdered fuel ash, pozzolans, blast furnace slag, and/or calcined clay) to form a water-based paste/slurry that hardens with the formation of insoluble calcium aluminosilicate. In the case of other hydraulic cements, in some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime is reacted at elevated temperatures with silica sources, alumina sources, and/or other additives such that cementitious compounds are formed, including dicalcium silicate, calcium aluminate, tricalcium silicate, and/or monocalcium silicate. In some cases, the gray sand brick is manufactured by reacting slaked lime with a source of silicon dioxide (e.g., sand, crushed silica, and/or flint) and/or other additives at temperatures required to form calcium silicate and/or calcium silicate hydrate. In some cases, lightweight concrete (e.g., aerated concrete (airfrete)) is made by reacting lime and/or hydrated lime with activated silica, aluminum powder, water, and/or other additives; the reaction between slaked lime and silicate/aluminate results in the formation of calcium silicate/aluminate and/or calcium silicate hydrate, while the reaction between water, slaked lime and aluminium results in the formation of hydrogen bubbles in the hardened paste. White paint is white paint made from a suspension of hydrated lime that hardens and solidifies as the hydrated lime reacts with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In some cases, calcium silicate boards, concrete, and other cast calcium silicate products are formed when calcium silicate-forming materials (e.g., lime, hydrated lime, silica, and/or cement) and additives (e.g., cellulose fibers and/or flame retardants) and water are mixed together, cast, or press-formed. In some cases, high temperatures are used to react lime, slaked lime, and/or silica, and/or to hydrate cement.

b) Soil (soil) stabilization

In some embodiments, the hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to stabilize, harden, and/or dry the soil. For example, lime and/or hydrated lime may be applied to loose or fine grained soil prior to the construction of roads, runways and/or railway tracks, and/or used to stabilize embankments and/or slopes. In some cases, when lime is applied to the clay, a pozzolanic reaction may occur between the clay and the lime to produce calcium silicate hydrate and/or calcium aluminate hydrate, which strengthens and/or hardens the soil. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime applied to the soil may also react with carbon dioxide to produce solid calcium carbonate, which may also strengthen and/or harden the soil. In some cases, lime may also be used to dry wet soil on a construction site, since lime readily reacts with water to form hydrated lime.

c) Asphalt additive and asphalt recovery

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make and/or recover asphalt. For example, in some cases, hydrated lime is added to hot asphalt mixtures as a mineral filler and/or antioxidant, and/or to increase resistance to water stripping. In some cases, the hydrated lime may be reacted with aluminosilicates and/or carbon dioxide to produce a solid product that improves the bonding between the binder and the aggregate in the asphalt. In some cases, as a mineral filler, lime may increase the viscosity of the binder, the stiffness of the asphalt, the tensile strength of the asphalt, and/or the compressive strength of the asphalt. In some cases, as a hydraulic road oil, lime can reduce moisture sensitivity and/or peelability, strengthen the binder to make it rut resistant, and/or improve toughness and/or resistance to fracture at low temperatures. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime added to the reclaimed asphalt causes greater early strength and/or resistance to moisture damage.

3. Waste treatment, water treatment, gas treatment

a) Gas treatment

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to remove acid gases (e.g., hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and/or hydrogen fluoride) and/or carbon dioxide from gas mixtures (e.g., flue gas, atmospheric air, air in a storage compartment, and/or air in a closed breathing environment such as a submarine). For example, in some cases, exposure of lime and/or hydrated lime to flue gas causes a reaction of the lime and/or hydrated lime with components of the flue gas (e.g., acid gases, including hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, and/or carbon dioxide), resulting in the formation of non-gaseous calcium compounds (e.g., calcium chloride, calcium sulfite, and/or calcium carbonate). In certain embodiments, exposing the gas to hydrated lime is accomplished by spraying a hydrated lime solution and/or slurry into the gas, and/or by reacting the gas stream with dry lime and/or hydrated lime. In certain embodiments, a gas stream comprising one or more acid gases is first reacted with a solution of an alkali metal hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide and/or potassium hydroxide) to form a soluble intermediate material (e.g., potassium carbonate), followed by reacting the soluble intermediate material with lime and/or slaked lime to produce a solid calcium material (e.g., calcium carbonate) and regenerating the original alkali metal hydroxide solution. In some embodiments, calcium carbonate formed from the reaction of lime and/or slaked lime with carbon dioxide or an alkali metal carbonate is returned to the reactors, systems, and/or processes disclosed herein so that the lime and/or slaked lime can be regenerated and/or so that carbon dioxide can be sequestered.

b) Non-gaseous waste treatment

In some embodiments, the hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to treat waste materials such as biological waste, industrial waste, wastewater, and/or sludge. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime may be applied to the waste to create an alkaline environment that serves to neutralize acidic waste, inhibit pathogens, deter flies or rodents, control odors, prevent leaching, and/or stabilize and/or precipitate contaminants (e.g., heavy metals, chromium, copper, and/or suspended/dissolved solids) and/or dissolved ions (calcium and/or magnesium) that cause scaling. In some cases lime may be used to dewater the oil-bearing waste. In some cases, slaked lime may be used to precipitate certain substances, such as phosphates, nitrates, and/or sulfur-containing compounds, and/or to prevent leaching. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime may be used to promote the decomposition of organic matter by maintaining alkaline conditions that favor hydrolysis.

c) Water treatment

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to treat water. For example, in some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime may be used to create an alkaline environment for disinfecting, removing suspended/colloidal materials, reducing hardness, adjusting pH, precipitating ions that contribute to water hardness, precipitating dissolved metals (e.g., iron, aluminum, manganese, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, copper, and/or nickel), and/or precipitating other ions (e.g., fluorine, sulfate, sulfite, phosphate, and/or nitrate).

4. Agricultural and food products

-agriculture

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used in agriculture. For example, in some cases lime and/or hydrated lime may be used alone or as an additive in fertilizers to adjust the pH of the soil and/or fertilizer mixture to provide optimal growth conditions and/or improve crop yield.

-sugars

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to refine sugar. For example, in some cases lime and/or hydrated lime is used to raise the pH of the raw sugar juice, destroy enzymes in the raw sugar juice, and/or react with inorganic and/or organic materials to form a precipitate. In some cases, excess calcium may be precipitated with carbon dioxide. In certain instances, the resulting precipitated calcium carbonate may be returned to the reactors, systems, and/or processes disclosed herein to regenerate the slaked lime.

Leather (R)

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make leather and/or parchment. In leather manufacturing processes, lime is used in some cases to remove hair and/or keratin from hides, to split fibers, and/or to remove fat.

-glue, gelatin

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make gum and/or gelatin. In the process of making glue and/or gelatin, in some cases, animal bones and/or hides are soaked in slaked lime to hydrolyze collagen and other proteins, thereby forming a mixture of protein fragments of different molecular weights.

-milk products

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make a dairy product. In some cases, hydrated lime is used to neutralize the acidity of the cream prior to pasteurization. In some cases, hydrated lime is used to precipitate calcium caseinate from an acidic solution of casein. In some cases, hydrated lime is added to the fermented skim milk to produce calcium lactate.

-fruit industry

In some embodiments, the hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used in the fruit industry. For example, in some cases, hydrated lime and/or lime is used to remove carbon dioxide from the air in fruit storage. In some cases, hydrated lime is used to neutralize spent citric acid and to raise the pH of the juice.

-insecticides/fungicides

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as an additive in a biocide and/or pesticide. For example, hydrated lime may be mixed with copper sulfate to form copper sulfate (a pesticide). In some cases, lime can also be used as a carrier for other kinds of pesticides, since lime forms a film on the leaves when it is carbonated, thereby retaining the pesticide on the leaves. In some cases, hydrated lime is used to control infestation of starfish on oyster beds.

-food additives

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as a food additive. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime may be used as an acidity regulator, as an acid wash to remove cellulose (e.g., from grain such as corn), and/or to precipitate certain anions (e.g., carbonate) from brine.

5. Chemical product

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein are used to make chemicals. For example, lime and/or hydrated lime may be used as a source of calcium and/or magnesium, an alkali, a drying agent, a causticizing agent, a saponifying agent, a binder, a flocculating and/or precipitating agent, a fluxing agent, a glass-forming product, an organic matter degrading agent, a lubricant, a filler, and/or a hydrolyzing agent, and the like.

a) Inorganic calcium compounds

-precipitated calcium carbonate

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make precipitated calcium carbonate. In some cases, a solution and/or slurry of hydrated lime, and/or a solution of calcium ions, is reacted with carbon dioxide and/or an alkali metal carbonate such that a precipitate of calcium carbonate and/or magnesium carbonate is formed. In some cases, precipitated alkali metal carbonates may be used as fillers to reduce shrinkage, improve adhesion, increase density, alter rheology, and/or whiten/brighten plastics (e.g., PVC and latex), rubber, paper, paint, ink, cosmetics, and/or other coatings. In some cases, the precipitated carbonate may be used as a flame retardant or dusting agent. In some cases, the precipitated calcium carbonate may be used as an alkalizing agent, in agriculture, as a preservative, a flour additive, a brewing additive, a digestive aid, and/or an additive for bitumen products, an abrasive (in detergents, polishes, and/or toothpastes), a dispersant in pesticides, and/or a drying agent.

-calcium hypochlorite

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium hypochlorite (bleach) by reacting chlorine with lime and/or slaked lime.

-calcium carbide

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein are used to produce calcium carbide (a precursor to acetylene) by reacting lime with a carbonaceous material (e.g., coke) at elevated temperatures.

-calcium phosphate

In some embodiments, the hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to produce calcium phosphate (monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, and/or tricalcium phosphate) by reacting phosphoric acid with hydrated lime, and/or aqueous calcium ions in an appropriate ratio. In some cases, monocalcium phosphate may be used as an additive in spontaneous flour (mineral-rich food), as a stabilizer for dairy products and/or as a feed additive. In some cases, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate is used in toothpastes, as a mild abrasive, for mineral enrichment of foods, as a granulation aid and/or as a thickener. In some cases, tricalcium phosphate is used in toothpaste, and/or as an anti-caking agent in food and/or fertilizers.

-calcium bromide

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium bromide. In some cases, this is accomplished by reacting lime and/or slaked lime with hydrobromic acid and/or bromine and a reducing agent (e.g., formic acid and/or formaldehyde).

-calcium ferricyanide

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium ferricyanide by reacting lime and/or slaked lime with hydrogen cyanide in an aqueous solution of ferrous chloride. The calcium ferricyanide may then be converted to an alkali metal salt or ferricyanide (hexacyanoferrate). These are used as pigments and as antiblocking agents.

-silico-calcium

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make silico-calcium by reacting lime, quartz, and/or carbonaceous materials at elevated temperatures. In some cases, silico-calcium is used as a deoxidizer, as a desulfurizer, and/or to modify non-metallic inclusions in ferrous metals.

-calcium dichromate

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium dichromate by roasting chromate ore with lime.

-calcium tungstate

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to produce calcium tungstate by reacting lime and/or slaked lime with sodium tungstate for use in producing ferrotungsten and/or phosphors for articles such as lasers, fluorescent lamps, and/or oscilloscopes.

b) Organic calcium compound

-calcium citrate

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium citrate by reacting lime and/or slaked lime with citric acid. In some cases, the calcium citrate may be reacted with sulfuric acid to regenerate pure citric acid.

-calcium soap

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium soaps by reacting slaked lime with fatty acids, cerotic acids, unsaturated carboxylic acids (e.g., oleic acid, linoleic acid, ethyl hexanoate acid), naphthenic acids, and/or resin acids. In some cases, lime soaps are used as additives in lubricants, stabilizers, mold release agents, water repellents, coatings and/or printing inks.

-calcium lactate

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium lactate by reacting slaked lime with lactic acid. In some cases, lactic acid may be reacted with sulfuric acid in a second step to produce pure lactic acid. In some cases, these chemicals act as coagulants and foaming agents. In some cases, calcium lactate is used as a calcium source in medicaments and/or food products, and/or as a buffer.

-calcium tartrate

In some embodiments, the hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make calcium tartrate by reacting hydrated lime with a basic hydrogen tartrate salt. In some cases, calcium hydrogen tartrate may be reacted with sulfuric acid in a second step to produce pure tartaric acid. In some cases, tartaric acid is used in food, pharmaceutical formulations, and/or as an additive in plasters and/or metal polishes.

c) Inorganic chemicals

-alumina

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make alumina. In the production of alumina, lime is used to precipitate impurities (e.g., silicates, carbonates, and/or phosphates) from the processed bauxite ore.

Alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or processes disclosed herein is used to make alkali metal carbonates and/or alkali metal bicarbonates from alkali metal chlorides in an ammonia-soda process. In this process, in some cases, after the ammonia (and/or amine) is reacted with the alkali metal chloride, the lime and/or slaked lime is reacted with ammonium chloride (and/or an ammonium chloride, such as isopropylammonium chloride) to regenerate the ammonia (and/or amine, such as isopropylamine). In some cases, the resulting calcium chloride may be reacted with an alkaline stream from the reactors, systems, and/or processes disclosed herein to regenerate slaked lime.

-strontium carbonate

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make strontium carbonate. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime is used to regenerate ammonia from ammonium sulfate, which is formed after the ammonia is carbonated and reacted with strontium sulfate.

-calcium zirconate

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or processes disclosed herein is used to make calcium zirconate. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime is mixed with zircon (ZrSiO)₄) Reacted to produce calcium silicate and calcium zirconate, which is further purified.

-alkali metal hydroxides

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make alkali metal hydroxide from alkali metal carbonate in a process commonly referred to as causticizing or recausticizing. In some cases, the slaked lime is reacted with an alkali metal carbonate to produce an alkali metal hydroxide and calcium carbonate. In some cases, the process of causticizing alkali metal carbonates is a feature of several other processes including: the purification of bauxite ore, the processing of phenolic oils and the recycling of sulphate cooking liquor (Kraft liquor), in which a "green liquor" containing sodium carbonate is reacted with slaked lime to form a "white liquor" containing sodium hydroxide.

-magnesium hydroxide

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make magnesium hydroxide. In some cases, the addition of slaked lime to a solution containing magnesium ions (e.g., seawater and/or brine solution) causes magnesium hydroxide to precipitate from the solution.

d) Organic chemicals

-an olefin oxide.

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make an olefin oxide. In some cases, lime is used to saponify or dehydrochlorinate the chloropropanol and/or the chloroethanol to produce the corresponding oxides. In some cases, the oxide may then be converted to a diol by acidic hydrolysis.

-diacetone alcohol.

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make diacetone alcohol. In some cases, hydrated lime is used as a basic catalyst to promote the self-condensation of acetone to form diacetone alcohol, which is used as a solvent for the resin, and/or as an intermediate in the production of mesityl oxide, methyl isobutyl ketone, and/or hexylene glycol.

Neopentyl glycol hydroxypivalate, pentaerythritol.

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as a basic catalyst to produce hydroxypivalyl hydroxypivalate and/or pentaerythritol.

Anthraquinone dyes and intermediates.

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as an alkaline agent to replace sulfonic acid groups with hydroxides in the manufacture of anthraquinone dyes and/or intermediates.

-trichloroethylene

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to remove chlorine from tetrachloroethane to form trichloroethylene.

6. Miscellaneous items use

Silica, silicon carbide and zirconia refractories.

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein are used as binders, and/or stabilizers in the manufacture of silica, silicon carbide, and/or zirconia refractories.

-calcium glass.

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as a lime source in soda lime glass manufacturing. In some cases, lime and/or hydrated lime is heated to an elevated temperature with other raw materials, including silica, sodium carbonate, and/or additives such as alumina and/or magnesia. In some cases, the molten mixture forms a glass upon cooling.

White pottery and enamel.

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used to make white pottery and/or enamel. In some cases, hydrated lime is blended with clay to act as a flux, a glass former to help bind the material, and/or to increase the whiteness of the final product.

-lubricants for casting and drawing.

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as a lubricant for casting and/or drawing of materials (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper, steel, and/or precious metals). In some cases, calcium-based lubricants may be used at high temperatures to prevent metal sticking to the mold. In some cases, the lubricant may be a blend of lime and other materials (including silicic acid, alumina, carbon, and/or fluxes such as fluorite and/or alkali metal oxides), lime soap. In some cases, hydrated lime is used as a lubricant carrier. In some cases, hydrated lime is bonded to the surface of the wire, increasing the surface roughness and/or improving the adhesion of the drawing compound.

-drilling mud.

In some embodiments, the hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used in drilling mud formulations to maintain high alkalinity and/or to maintain the clay in a non-plastic state. In some cases, drilling mud may be pumped through the hollow drill pipe while drilling through rock for oil and gas. In some cases, the drilling mud carries rock fragments produced by the drill bit to the surface.

-oil additives and greases.

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as an oil additive and/or a grease. In some cases, lime is reacted with alkyl phenates and/or organic sulfonates to produce calcium soaps, which are blended with other additives to produce oil additives and/or greases. In some cases, lime-based additives prevent sludge build-up and reduce the acidity of the products from combustion (especially at high temperatures).

Pulp and paper

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein are used in the pulp and/or paper industry. For example, slaked lime is used in the sulfate process (Kraft) to recausticize sodium carbonate to sodium hydroxide. In some cases, the calcium carbonate formed from the reaction may be returned to the reactors, systems, and/or processes disclosed herein to regenerate the slaked lime. In some cases, slaked lime may also be used as a source of alkali in sulfite pulping to produce a liquor (liquor). In some cases, slaked lime is added to a sulfurous acid solution to form bisulfite. In some cases, a mixture of sulfurous acid and bisulfite is used to cook the pulp. In some cases, slaked lime may also be used to precipitate calcium lignosulfonate from the sulfite liquor.

Aquariums

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as a source of calcium and/or alkalinity for marine aquarium and/or reef growth.

Method of storing heat

In some embodiments, the slaked lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used for thermochemical energy storage (e.g., for self-heating food containers and/or for solar thermal storage).

-flame retardants

In some embodiments, the calcium hydroxide and/or magnesium hydroxide produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein are used as additives for flame retardants, cable insulation, and/or plastic insulation.

Antimicrobial agents

In some embodiments, hydrated lime and/or lime produced by the reactors, systems, and/or methods disclosed herein is used as an antimicrobial agent. For example, in some cases lime and/or hydrated lime is used to treat areas contaminated with disease, such as walls, floors, decking and/or animal houses.

The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the invention, but not to exemplify the full scope of the invention.

Example 1

This example describes a system operating in a first mode, wherein the generated acid and base are collected.

Nearly neutral 1M Na₂SO₄The solution was fed to the anode (made of carbon felt) and cathode (also carbon felt) of the flow cell at a rate of 10 mL/min, and then the solution was removed from the anode and cathode. When a voltage of 2.5V was applied to the cell, the pH of the solution from the anode was 1.5 and the pH of the solution from the cathode was 12.5.

Example 2

This example describes a system operating in a first mode, where the generated acid and base are collected and reacted.

A hydrolysis reaction is performed in an electrochemical cell comprising a first electrode and a second electrode such that a base and hydrogen are produced at the first electrode (cathode) and an acid and oxygen are produced at the second electrode (anode). The base is collected from the reactor through a conduit into a first device fluidly connected to the reactor and stored in the device. The acid is collected from the reactor through a conduit to a second device fluidly connected to the reactor and stored in the device.

When desired, the base is transferred to a third apparatus fluidly connected to the first apparatus, and the acid is transferred to a fourth apparatus fluidly connected to the second apparatus. The acid is then used to dissolve CaCO in chemical dissolution in a fourth apparatus₃To form Ca²⁺Ions and CO₃ ^2-Ions. Then adding Ca²⁺Transporting the ions to a third device (which is in fluid connection with the fourth device), wherein the base is mixed with Ca²⁺The ions are used together in a precipitation reaction to form Ca (OH)₂。Ca(OH)₂May optionally be used in a cement manufacturing process, for example using a kiln and/or a heater.

Example 3

This embodiment describes a system operating in a first mode in which the oxygen and hydrogen produced are delivered and reduced and oxidized, respectively.

A hydrolysis reaction is performed in an electrochemical cell comprising a first electrode and a second electrode such that a base and hydrogen are produced at the first electrode (cathode) and an acid and oxygen are produced at the second electrode (anode). Hydrogen is transported through a conduit from the cathode to the anode where it is oxidized to produce an acid. The production of acid further lowers the pH at the anode. Oxygen is transported through a conduit from the anode to the cathode where it is reduced to produce the base. The generation of base further increases the pH at the cathode.

In some such systems or methods, the acid and base are optionally collected and/or reacted as described in example 1.

Example 4

This embodiment describes a system operating in a first mode wherein the generated oxygen and hydrogen can be collected and sold or used, or recombined to form water.

A hydrolysis reaction is performed in an electrochemical cell comprising a first electrode and a second electrode such that a base and hydrogen are produced at the first electrode (cathode) and an acid and oxygen are produced at the second electrode (anode). The hydrogen and oxygen gases can be collected and sold or used, or if gas generation is not desired, recombined to form water.

Example 5

This embodiment describes a system that operates alternately in a first mode and a second mode.

The system or method of example 1 is used during periods of low electricity cost and/or high electricity availability, but some or all of the acid and base are stored rather than used in chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reactions. When the electrical cost increases and/or becomes less useful, the system is switched to a second mode, in which the polarity of the electrodes is opposite to that in example 1. The stored base from example 1 was then added to the anode where it was oxidized to form oxygen. The stored acid is then added to the cathode where it is reduced to produce hydrogen. The hydrogen and oxygen may optionally be collected and sold or used.

Example 6

This example describes the operation of a system comprising two reactors to produce an acid and a base that can be used for chemical dissolution and/or precipitation reactions.

A system comprising two reactors in fluid connection is operated. The first reactor produces a base, a dihalide (e.g., Cl)₂) And hydrogen gas. The first reactor and the second reactor are fluidly connected and hydrogen and dihalide produced in the first reactor are transferred to the second reactor. Water is also added to the second reactor, and the second reactor produces an acid (e.g., HCl).

The base is collected from the first reactor with a first device and the acid is collected from the second reactor with a second device. Using acid for chemical dissolution in the second apparatus, e.g. solid CaCO₃To Ca²⁺Ions and CO₃ ^2-Chemical dissolution of the ions. A second device in fluid connection with the first device, and Ca from the second device²⁺The ions are transported to a first apparatus where they react with a base in a precipitation reaction to form Ca (OH)₂。Ca(OH)₂May optionally be used in a cement manufacturing process, for example using a kiln and/or a heater.

While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the functions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present disclosure is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention.

The indefinite article "a" or "an" as used herein in the specification and the claims is understood to mean "at least one" unless explicitly indicated to the contrary.

The phrase "and/or" as used herein in the specification and claims should be understood to mean "either or both" of the elements so combined, i.e., the elements that are present together in some cases and separately in other cases. Unless explicitly stated to the contrary, other elements than those specifically indicated by the "and/or" clause may optionally be present, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically indicated. Thus, as a non-limiting example, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as "comprising," reference to "a and/or B" may refer in one embodiment to a without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, B may be absent a (optionally including elements other than a); and in yet another embodiment may refer to both a and B (optionally including other elements); and so on.

As used herein in the specification and claims, "or" should be understood to have the same meaning as "and/or" as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, "or" and/or "should be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., including at least one of the plurality of elements or list of elements, but also including more than one, and optionally additional unlisted items. Merely explicitly stating the opposite terms, such as "only one" or "exactly one" or, when used in the claims, "consisting of … …" will mean that there is exactly one element in a plurality or list of elements. In general, when preceding an exclusive term (e.g., "any," "one of," "only one of," or "exactly one of"), the term "or" as used herein should only be construed to mean an exclusive alternative (i.e., "one or the other, but not both"). "consisting essentially of … …" when used in the claims shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the patent law field.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase "at least one," when referring to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each element specifically listed within the list of elements, nor excluding any combination of elements in the list of elements. The definition also allows that elements other than those specifically identified in the list of elements referred to by the phrase "at least one" may optionally be present, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, "at least one of a and B" (or, equivalently, "at least one of a or B," or, equivalently, "at least one of a and/or B") can refer in one embodiment to at least one a, optionally including more than one a, without B (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, it may refer to at least one B, optionally including more than one B, with no a present (and optionally including elements other than a); in yet another embodiment, it may refer to at least one a, optionally including more than one a, and at least one B, optionally including more than one B (and optionally including other elements); and so on.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as "comprising," "including," "carrying," "having," "containing," "involving," "holding," and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. The transition phrases "consisting of … …" and "consisting essentially of … …" alone should be closed or semi-closed transition phrases, respectively, as set forth in section 2111.03 of the patent office patent examination program manual.