阅读说明：本技术 可变组份气体混合物传感器 (Variable composition gas mixture sensor ) 是由 J·M·普莱斯 R·盖格 D·肯德里克 C·A·维克洛夫 于 2019-06-27 设计创作，主要内容包括：一种用于测量燃料-氧化剂当量比的系统,包含界定气体体积的至少一个壁,所述气体体积包括燃料和空气包含。气体电离源配置成在气体中形成离子。电源配置成输出时变电压。第一电极设置于气体体积中,可操作地耦合到电源,且配置成携载时变电压。第二电极设置成在信号通过气体体积之后,可操作地耦合到第一电极输出的信号。接收的信号的特性指示燃料-氧化剂当量比。(A system for measuring fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio includes at least one wall defining a gas volume, the gas volume including a fuel and an air containment. The gas ionization source is configured to form ions in a gas. The power supply is configured to output a time-varying voltage. A first electrode is disposed in the gas volume, is operatively coupled to a power source, and is configured to carry a time-varying voltage. The second electrode is configured to be operatively coupled to the signal output by the first electrode after the signal passes through the volume of gas. The characteristic of the received signal is indicative of a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio.)

1. A system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, comprising:

at least one wall defining a volume of gas, the gas comprising fuel and air;

a gas ionization source configured to form ions in the gas;

a power supply configured to output a time-varying voltage;

a first electrode disposed in the gas volume, operably coupled to the power source, and configured to carry the time-varying voltage;

a second electrode disposed to operably couple to a signal from the first electrode through at least a portion of the volume of gas;

a receiver circuit operably coupled to the second electrode and configured to receive the signal having a characteristic corresponding to the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio within the volume of gas; and

a control circuit operatively coupled to the receiver circuit configured to determine a value corresponding to the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio.

2. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the gas ionization source occupies a physical volume within the gas volume; and is

Wherein the first and second electrodes are aligned such that the received signal has a characteristic corresponding to the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio within the gas ionization volume.

3. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the gas ionization source comprises at least one ionizing electrode configured to ionize a gas in a volume of gas.

4. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 3,

wherein the at least one ionizing electrode comprises a corona electrode.

5. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 3,

wherein the at least one ionizing electrode comprises a dielectric barrier electrode.

6. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the volume of gas comprises a fuel tank headspace.

7. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the control circuit is further configured to automatically take corrective action when it is determined that the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is within flammability limits.

8. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1, further comprising a purge system;

wherein the control circuit is configured to actuate the purge system to purge fuel vapor and/or oxidant from the volume of gas when it is determined that the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is within the flammability limit.

9. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 8,

wherein the purge system comprises:

an inert gas source; and

a purge control valve;

wherein the control circuit is configured to actuate the purge control valve when it is determined that the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is within the flammability limit.

10. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the wall comprises a fuel tank.

11. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the wall comprises a flame arrestor.

12. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1,

wherein the gas ionization source comprises a burner.

13. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 12,

wherein the burner comprises:

a flame holder aligned to receive a mixture of fuel from a fuel source and combustion air from a combustion air source.

14. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 13,

wherein the burner further comprises a blower; and is

Wherein the control circuitry is configured to control a blower output in response to the detected fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio.

15. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 13,

wherein the burner further comprises a register; and is

Wherein the control circuit is configured to control the register.

16. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 13,

wherein the flame holder comprises a perforated flame holder.

17. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 16, wherein the perforated flame holder is a reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder.

18. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 17, wherein the perforated flame holder comprises a plurality of mesh fibers.

19. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the perforated flame holder comprises zirconia.

20. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the perforated flame holder comprises an alumina silicate.

21. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the perforated flame holder comprises silicon carbide.

22. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the reticulated fiber is formed from extruded mullite.

23. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the reticulated fiber is formed from cordierite.

24. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the perforated flame holder is configured to support a combustion reaction of the fuel and the oxidant upstream, downstream, and inside the perforated flame holder.

25. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the perforated flame holder comprises about 100 pores per square inch of surface area.

26. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 18, wherein the perforated flame holder comprises:

an input face;

an output face; and

a plurality of perforations extending between the input face and the output face.

27. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 26, wherein the perforations are formed as passages between the mesh fibers.

28. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 27, wherein the perforations are branched perforations.

29. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 27, wherein the perforations extend between the input face and the output face.

30. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 26, wherein the input face corresponds to an extent of the reticulated fibers in proximity to a fuel nozzle.

31. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 30, wherein the output face corresponds to an extent of the mesh fibers away from the fuel nozzle.

32. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 17, wherein the perforated flame holder is configured to support at least a portion of a combustion reaction between an input face and an output face within the perforated flame holder.

33. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 12, wherein the combustor is an industrial combustor.

34. The system for measuring a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1, further comprising a sensor operably coupled to the control circuit, the sensor configured to sense one or more of pressure and temperature.

35. The system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 1, wherein the control circuitry is configured to determine a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio as a function of a combination of a value of the received signal and a value of the sensed temperature and/or pressure.

36. A method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, comprising:

forming ions in a gas comprising a fuel and an oxidant;

applying a periodic voltage signal to a first electrode adjacent to the gas;

receiving a periodic response signal through the gas with a second electrode, the periodic response signal being generated as a function of the response of the ions to the periodic voltage signal;

converting the periodic response signal into a corresponding digital signal;

receiving a sensor signal corresponding to a parameter of the gas;

applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for a function; and

determining a value of the function corresponding to the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio.

37. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36, further comprising:

maintaining the pressure of the gas constant;

wherein receiving the sensor signal comprises receiving a signal corresponding to a temperature of the gas.

38. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36, further comprising:

maintaining the temperature of the gas constant;

wherein receiving the sensor signal comprises receiving a signal corresponding to a pressure of the gas.

39. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36,

wherein receiving the sensor signal comprises receiving a temperature signal corresponding to the gas and receiving a pressure signal corresponding to the gas.

40. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36,

wherein forming ions in the gas comprises operating an ionizer.

41. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 40,

wherein operating the ionizer comprises applying a voltage to a corona electrode.

42. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 41,

wherein the corona electrode is disposed in a gas volume in which the first and second electrodes are disposed.

43. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 40,

wherein operating the ionizer comprises applying a voltage to a dielectric barrier electrode.

44. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 40,

wherein forming ions in the gas further comprises operating an ionizer in a removed gas volume and delivering at least a portion of the ions from the removed gas volume to a gas volume in which the first and second electrodes are disposed.

45. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 40, further comprising:

determining that a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is within a flammability limit of the fuel; and

actuating a valve to change the fuel-air equivalence ratio to a ratio outside of a combustion limit of the fuel.

46. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 45, wherein actuating the valve comprises purging the gas with an inert gas.

47. The method for measuring fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 46, wherein the inert gas comprises nitrogen or carbon dioxide.

48. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 45,

wherein the fuel comprises kerosene.

49. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 40, further comprising:

isolating the ions within a grounded screen forming a flame arrestor.

50. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36,

wherein forming ions in the gas comprises supporting a combustion reaction in the gas.

51. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 50, further comprising:

outputting the fuel and the air toward a perforated flame holder;

wherein forming ions in the gas comprises supporting the combustion reaction at least partially within the perforated flame holder.

52. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 51,

wherein the first electrode is disposed to output the periodic voltage signal toward the perforated flame holder; and is

Wherein the second electrode is configured to receive the periodic response signal at least partially through the perforated flame holder.

53. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 50, further comprising:

determining that a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is at or near a combustion limit of the fuel; and

a valve actuated to change the fuel-air equivalence ratio to a valve closer to a center of the combustion limit.

54. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 53,

wherein determining that the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is near the combustion limit comprises determining that the equivalence ratio is outside of the combustion limit.

55. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36,

wherein applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for a function comprises:

performing analog-to-digital conversion on the sensor signal to form a digital sensor signal.

56. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 55,

wherein applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for a function comprises:

the digital signal and the digital sensor signal are used to address a look-up table or as a parameter in a query database.

57. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 56,

wherein the digital sensor signal is used to determine a page or region of a table and the digital signal selects an address in the page or region.

58. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 55,

wherein applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for a function comprises applying at least one of the digital signal and the digital sensor signal as a parameter in an equation.

59. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36, wherein the value of the function is a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio.

60. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36, wherein the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is a fuel-air equivalence ratio.

61. The method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio of claim 36, wherein forming ions in a gas comprises generating free electrons.

Disclosure of Invention

The equivalence ratio, referred to by the variable Phi (Φ), is a dimensionless number expressing the ratio of fuel to oxidant present in the gas relative to the stoichiometric ratio of fuel to oxidant in the combustion reaction.

For example, the complete combustion reaction of methane and oxygen can be expressed as:

CH₄+2O₂→CO₂+2H₂O

in this complete combustion reaction, the stoichiometric ratio of fuel to oxygen was 0.5. That is, the combustion reaction requires two oxygen molecules per methane molecule.

Φ can be expressed as:

for example, if there are 3 moles of oxygen in the gas for each mole of methane, then Φ can be solved as:

the equivalence ratio is important because it can be predicted that a combustible-fuel will be combustible only between the lower and upper limits of Phi, which can be referred to as lower and upper flammability limits, respectively. For safety purposes, it may be desirable to maintain Phi in the tank or in the headspace in an industrial plant below the lower flammability limit or above the upper flammability limit, such a mixture being less prone to explosion or causing a fire.

The equivalence ratio is also important because it can predict industrial combustor performance.

According to an embodiment, a system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio includes at least one wall defining a gas volume including fuel and air. The gas ionization source is configured to form ions in a gas. The power supply is configured to output a time-varying voltage. A first electrode is disposed in the gas volume, is operatively coupled to a power source, and is configured to carry a time-varying voltage. The second electrode is arranged to receive a signal from the first electrode through at least a portion of the volume of gas. A receiver circuit is operatively coupled to the second electrode and configured to receive a signal having a characteristic corresponding to a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio within the volume of gas. The control circuit is operatively coupled to the receiver circuit and configured to determine a value corresponding to a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio. In an embodiment, the system includes a temperature and/or pressure sensor operably coupled to the control circuit. In embodiments, the gas ionization source comprises a flame source, such as an industrial burner, or an electrode (e.g., dielectric barrier or corona) ion source. In one embodiment, the control circuit includes a transducer circuit. According to an embodiment, a method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio comprises: forming ions in a gas comprising a fuel and an oxidant; applying a periodic voltage signal to a first electrode adjacent to the gas; and receiving a periodic response signal through the gas with the second electrode. The periodic response signal may be generated based on the ion and electron responses to the periodic voltage signal. The method comprises converting the periodic response signal into a corresponding DC signal, i.e. into a digital signal; receiving a sensor signal corresponding to a parameter of the gas; applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for the function; and determining a value of the function corresponding to the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio.

Drawings

Fig. 1A is a schematic diagram of a system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 1B is a block diagram of a system for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, wherein a gas ionization source comprises a burner, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 2 is a simplified diagram of a burner system including a perforated flame holder configured to hold a combustion reaction, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 3 is a side cross-sectional view of a portion of the perforated flame holder of fig. 1A, 1B, and 2, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for operating a burner system including the perforated flame holder of fig. 1A, 1B, 2, and 3, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 5A is a simplified perspective view of a combustion system including another alternative perforated flame holder, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 5B is a simplified side cross-sectional view of a portion of the reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder of fig. 5A, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 6 is a simplified diagram of a combustion system according to an embodiment.

FIG. 7 is an idealized graph illustrating how the received signal varies as the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio varies under each of three environmental conditions, according to an embodiment.

Fig. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of a combustion system and sensors according to an embodiment.

Detailed Description

In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof. In the drawings, like symbols typically identify like components, unless context dictates otherwise. Other embodiments may be used, and/or other changes may be made, without departing from the spirit or scope of the present disclosure.

Fig. 1A is a schematic diagram of a system 100 for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, according to an embodiment. The system 100 may include at least one wall 104 defining a gas volume 106. The system 100 includes a gas ionization source 108 configured to form ions in a gas. According to an embodiment, the power supply 110 is configured to output a time-varying voltage. The system 100 can include a first electrode 112 disposed in the gas volume 106, operably coupled to a power source 110, and configured to carry a time-varying voltage. According to an embodiment, the system 100 may comprise a second electrode 114 arranged to be operatively coupled to the signal from the first electrode 112 through at least a portion of the gas volume 106. The system 100 may include a receiver circuit 116 operably coupled to the second electrode 114 and configured to receive the signal. According to an embodiment, the signal may have a characteristic corresponding to a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio within the gas volume 106. The system 100 may include control circuitry 118 operatively coupled to the receiver circuitry 116 and configured to determine a value corresponding to a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio.

According to an embodiment, the gas ionization source 108 may occupy a physical volume within the gas volume 106. The first electrode 112 and the second electrode 114 may be aligned such that the received signal has a characteristic corresponding to a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio within the gas volume 106.

According to an embodiment, the gas ionization source 108 may comprise at least one ionizing electrode configured to ionize a gas in the gas volume 106 to form ions. Ionizing the gas may also include introducing free electrons.

Various electrode configurations and types are contemplated. According to an embodiment, the at least one ionizing electrode may comprise a corona electrode and/or a dielectric barrier electrode.

According to an embodiment, the gas volume 106 may comprise a fuel tank headspace.

In some applications, the gas volume 106 may be vented to atmosphere. In other applications, a refinery or chemical plant may be susceptible to the accumulation of air or other oxidants in the gas volume 106 that would otherwise be occupied by fuel or fuel vapors. If the proportion (also referred to as equivalence ratio) of oxidant (e.g., atmospheric oxygen) present falls within the flammability limits of the fuel, then it can be inferred that a hazardous condition exists. Corrective action may be taken to reduce the hazard.

Referring to fig. 1A, according to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 may be further configured to automatically take corrective action when the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is determined to be within the flammability limit.

According to an embodiment, the system 100 may further comprise a purging (pumping) system 120. According to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 may be configured to actuate the purge system 120 to purge the fuel vapor and/or oxidant from the gas volume 106 when the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is determined to be within the flammability limit.

According to an embodiment, the purge system 120 may include an inert gas source 122 and a purge control valve 124. According to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 may be configured to actuate the purge control valve 124 when it is determined that the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is within the flammability limit. For example, the inert gas source 122 may comprise a pressure tank containing an inert (i.e., non-oxidant) gas such as nitrogen, helium, or carbon dioxide.

Referring to fig. 1A, the wall 104 may contain a fuel tank. Additionally or alternatively, according to embodiments, the wall 104 may include a flame arrestor.

According to an embodiment, the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is a fuel-air equivalence ratio.

Fig. 1B is a block diagram of a system 101 for measuring a fuel-air equivalence ratio, wherein a gas ionization source 108 comprises a burner, according to an embodiment.

According to an embodiment, the gas ionization source 108 may comprise an industrial burner.

According to an embodiment, the combustor 108 may include a flame holder 102 aligned to receive a mixture of fuel from the fuel sources 126a, 126b and combustion air from the combustion air source 128 and to hold a combustion reaction supported by the fuel and the combustion air.

According to an embodiment, the combustor 108 further may include a blower 130. According to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 may be configured to control the blower 130 output in response to a detected fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio. According to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 includes a program carried by a non-transitory computer memory medium that is configured to cause the control circuitry 118 to maintain the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio within the flammability limit of the fuel. Thus, the system 101 may be configured to maintain more stable combustion as compared to a combustor system that does not include an equivalence ratio sensor.

According to an embodiment, the combustor 108 may further comprise a register. According to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 may be configured to control the register.

According to an embodiment, the flame holder 102 includes a perforated flame holder 102.

Fig. 2 is a simplified diagram of a combustor system 200 including a perforated flame holder 102 configured to hold a combustion reaction, according to an embodiment. As used herein, the terms perforated flame holder, perforated reaction holder, porous flame holder, porous reaction holder, doublet (duplex), doublet (duplex tile) should be considered synonymous unless a further definition is provided.

Experiments conducted by the inventors have shown that the perforated flame holder 102 described in the present invention can support extremely clean combustion. In particular, when pilot-scale to full-scale combustor systems 200 were used experimentally, the output range of measured oxides of nitrogen (NOx) dropped from low single-digit parts per million (ppm) to undetectable (less than 1ppm) concentrations of NOx at the stack. These significant results were measured at 3% (dry) oxygen (O2) concentration and undetectable carbon monoxide (CO) at stack temperatures typical for industrial furnace applications (1400-.

Furthermore, these results do not require any special measures, such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR), water/steam injection, external Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR), or other extreme methods, which may be required for conventional combustors to approach such clean combustion.

According to an embodiment, the combustor system 200 includes a fuel and oxidant source 202 configured to output a fuel and an oxidant into a combustion volume 204 to form a fuel and oxidant mixture 206. As used herein, the terms fuel and oxidant mixture and fuel stream are used interchangeably and are considered synonymous, depending on the context, unless a further definition is provided. As used herein, the terms combustion volume, combustion chamber, furnace volume, and the like are to be considered synonymous unless a further definition is provided. The perforated flame holder 102 is disposed in the combustion volume 204 and is positioned to receive a fuel and oxidant mixture 206.

Fig. 3 is a side cross-sectional view 300 of a portion of the perforated flame holder 102 of fig. 1A, 1B, and 2, according to an embodiment. Referring to fig. 2 and 3, the perforated flame holder 102 includes a perforated flame holder body 208 defining a plurality of perforations 210 aligned to receive the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 from the fuel and oxidant source 202. As used herein, in the context of the perforated flame holder 102, the terms perforations, apertures, elongated apertures, and the like, shall be considered synonymous unless a further definition is provided. The perforations 210 are configured to collectively retain a combustion reaction 302 supported by the fuel and oxidant mixture 206.

The fuel may comprise hydrogen gas, hydrocarbon gas, vaporized hydrocarbon liquid, atomized hydrocarbon liquid, or a powder or pulverized solid. The fuel may be a single substance or may comprise a mixture of gases, vapors, atomized liquids, and/or pulverized solids. For example, in a process heater application, the fuel may comprise a fuel gas or by-product from the process comprising carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H)₂) And methane (CH)₄). In another application, the fuel may comprise natural gas (mostly CH)₄) Or propane (C)₃H₈). In another application, the fuel may comprise No. 2 fuel oil or No. 6 fuel oil. The inventors similarly contemplate dual fuel applications and flex fuel applications. The oxidant may comprise oxygen carried by air, flue gas, and/or may comprise another oxidant, either pure or carried by a carrier gas. The terms oxidant and oxide should be considered synonymous in the present invention.

According to an embodiment, the perforated flame holder body 208 may be bounded by: an input face 212 configured to receive the fuel and oxidant mixture 206, an output face 214 facing away from the fuel and oxidant source 202, and a peripheral surface 216 defining a lateral extent of the perforated flame holder 102. A plurality of perforations 210 defined by the perforated flame holder body 208 extend from an input face 212 to an output face 214. The plurality of perforations 210 may receive the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 at an input face 212. The fuel and oxidant mixture 206 may then combust in or near the plurality of perforations 210, and the combustion products may exit the plurality of perforations 210 at or near the output face 214.

According to an embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 is configured to hold a majority of the combustion reaction 302 within the perforations 210. For example, on a steady-state basis, more than half of the fuel molecules output by the fuel and oxidant source 202 into the combustion volume 204 can be converted into combustion products between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. According to an alternative explanation, more than half of the heat or thermal energy output by the combustion reaction 302 may be output between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. As used herein, the terms heat, thermal energy and thermal energy should be considered synonymous unless a further definition is provided. As used above, thermal energy and thermal energy generally refer to the chemical energy released by the reactants initially held during the combustion reaction 302. As used elsewhere herein, heat, thermal energy and thermal energy correspond to detectable temperature increases experienced by a real body characterized by a heat capacity. Under nominal operating conditions, the perforations 210 may be configured to collectively hold at least 80% of the combustion reaction 302 between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. In some embodiments, the combustion reaction 302 produced by the inventors is significantly contained entirely within the perforations 210 between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. According to an alternative explanation, the perforated flame holder 102 can support combustion between the input face 212 and the output face 214 when the combustion is "time averaged". For example, during transients, such as before the perforated flame holder 102 is fully heated, or if an excessive (cooling) load is imposed on the system, combustion may proceed from the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102 to the downstream portion. Alternatively, if the cooling load is relatively low and/or the furnace temperature reaches a high level, combustion may proceed from a portion upstream of the input face 212 of the perforated flame holder 102.

Although "flames" are described in a manner that facilitates description, it should be understood that in some instances, no visible flame is present. Combustion occurs primarily within the perforation 210, but the "glow" of the combustion heat is dominated by the visible glow of the perforated flame holder 102 itself. In other examples, the inventors have noted transient "deflagration" or "flashback," in which the visible flame is in the dilution zone D in the region between the input face 212 of the perforated flame holder 102 and the fuel nozzle 218_DAnd briefly ignited. The duration of such transient detonations or flashback is generally short, such that on a time-averaged basis, most of the combustion occurs within the perforations 210 of the perforated flame holder 102, between the input face 212 and the output face 214. In yet other examples of steps, the inventors have expressly noted that combustion occurs downstream from the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102, but that a substantial portion of the combustion still occurs within the perforated flame holder 102, as evidenced by the sustained visible glow observed from the perforated flame holder 102.

The perforated flame holder 102 may be configured to receive heat from the combustion reaction 302 and output a portion of the received heat as thermal radiation 304 to heat receiving structures (e.g., furnace walls and/or radiant section working fluid tubes) in or adjacent to the combustion volume 204. As used herein, terms such as radiation, thermal radiation, radiant heat, thermal radiation, and the like, are to be understood as being substantially synonymous unless a further definition is provided. In particular, such terms refer to blackbody-type radiation of electromagnetic energy, primarily at infrared wavelengths, but also at visible wavelengths due to the elevated temperature of the perforated flame holder body 208.

Referring specifically to FIG. 3, the perforated flame holder 102 outputs another portion of the received heat to the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 received at the input face 212 of the perforated flame holder 102. The perforated flame holder body 208 may receive heat from the combustion reaction 302 at least in the heat receiving zone 306 of the perforated wall 308. The inventors have shown through experimental evidence that the position of the heat receiving zone 306, or at least the position corresponding to the maximum rate of heat reception, may vary along the length of the perforated wall 308. In some experiments, the location of maximum heat reception was significantly between 1/3 and 1/2 of the distance from input face 212 to output face 214 (i.e., slightly closer to input face 212 than to output face 214). The inventors contemplate that under other conditions, the heat receiving region 306 may be located closer to the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. Most likely, the heat receiving area 306 does not have a clearly defined edge (or, for that matter, the heat output area 310 described below). For ease of understanding, the heat receiving area 306 and the heat output area 310 will be described as specific areas 306, 310.

The perforated flame holder body 208 may be characterized by a thermal capacity. The perforated flame holder body 208 may hold thermal energy from the combustion reaction 302 corresponding to the heat capacity multiplied by the temperature increase and transfer the thermal energy from the heat receiving zone 306 to the heat output zone 310 of the perforated wall 308. The heat output region 310 is generally closer to the input face 212 than the heat receiving region 306. According to one explanation, the perforated flame holder body 208 may transfer heat from the heat receiving region 306 to the heat output region 310 via thermal radiation, depicted graphically as 304. According to another explanation, the perforated flame holder body 208 may transfer heat from the heat receiving region 306 to the heat output region 310 via thermal conduction along a thermal conduction path 312. The inventors contemplate that a number of heat transfer mechanisms including conduction, radiation, and possibly convection may be used to transfer heat from the heat receiving region 306 to the heat output region 310. In this manner, the perforated flame holder 102 may act as a heat source to sustain the combustion reaction 302, even under conditions when the combustion reaction 302 is unstable (supported by conventional flame holders).

The inventors believe that the perforated flame holder 102 causes the combustion reaction 302 to begin within a thermal boundary layer 314 formed adjacent to the wall 308 of the perforation 210. To this extent, combustion is generally understood to include a large number of individual reactions, and since a majority of the combustion energy is released within the perforated flame holder 102, it is apparent that individual reactions occur within the perforated flame holder 102. As the relatively cool fuel and oxidant mixture 206 approaches the input face 212, the flow is split into portions that respectively travel through the individual perforations 210. The hot perforated flame holder body 208 transfers heat to the fluid, particularly within a thermal boundary layer 314 that gradually thickens as more and more heat is transferred to the incoming fuel and oxidant mixture 206. After reaching the combustion temperature (e.g., the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel), the reactants continue to flow as the chemical ignition delay time elapses, during which the combustion reaction 302 has occurred. Thus, the combustion reaction 302 is shown as occurring within the thermal boundary layer 314. As the flow progresses, the thermal boundary layers 314 merge at a merge point 316. Ideally, the merge point 316 is located between the input face 212 and the output face 214 that define the ends of the perforations 210. At some point along the length of the perforations 210, the combustion reaction 302 outputs more heat to the perforated flame holder body 208 than it receives from the perforated flame holder body 208. Heat is received at the heat receiving region 306, held by the perforated flame holder body 208, and transported to the heat output region 310 closer to the input face 212, where the heat is transferred into the cold reactant (and any included diluent) to bring the reactant to the ignition temperature.

In an embodiment, each of the perforations 210 is characterized by a length L defined as a reaction fluid propagation path length between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. As used herein, the term reactive fluid refers to a substance that travels through perforations 210. Near the input face 212, the reactive fluid comprises a fuel and oxidant mixture 206 (optionally containing nitrogen, flue gas, and/or other "non-reactive" species). Within the combustion reaction 302 zone, the reaction fluid may comprise plasma, molecules of reactants and their constituents, any non-reactive species, reaction intermediates (including transition states), and reaction products associated with the combustion reaction 302. Near output face 214, the reaction fluid can comprise reaction products and byproducts, non-reactive gases, and excess oxidant.

The plurality of perforations 210 may each be characterized by a transverse dimension D between opposing perforated walls 308. The inventors have found that stable combustion can be maintained in the perforated flame holder 102 if the length L of each perforation 210 is at least four times the transverse dimension D of the perforation 210. In other embodiments, the length L may be greater than six times the transverse dimension D. For example, experiments have been run in which L is at least eight times, at least twelve times, at least sixteen times, and at least twenty-four times the lateral dimension D. Preferably, the length L is sufficiently long for the thermal boundary layer 314 to form adjacent to the perforated wall 308 in the reaction fluid flowing through the perforations 210 to converge at a merge point 316 within the perforations 210 between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. In experiments, the inventors found that the L/D ratio performs well (i.e., low NOx is produced, low CO is produced, and stable combustion is maintained) between 12 and 48.

The perforated flame holder body 208 may be configured to deliver heat between adjacent perforations 210. The heat delivered between adjacent perforations 210 may be selected to cause heat to be output from the combustion reaction portion 302 in a first perforation 210, thereby supplying heat to stabilize the combustion reaction portion 302 in the adjacent perforations 210.

Referring specifically to fig. 2, the fuel and oxidant source 202 may further include a fuel nozzle 218 configured to output a fuel, and an oxidant source 220 configured to output a fluid including an oxidant. For example, the fuel nozzles 218 may be configured to output pure fuel. The oxidant source 220 may be configured to output combustion air carrying oxygen and optionally flue gas.

The perforated flame holder 102 may be held by a perforated flame holder support structure 222 configured to hold a perforated flameThe retainer 102 is held at a dilution distance D away from the fuel nozzle 218_D. The fuel nozzle 218 may be configured to emit a fuel jet selected to entrain oxidant to travel through a dilution distance D between the fuel nozzle 218 and the perforated flame holder 102 as the fuel jet and oxidant travel along a path to the perforated flame holder 102_DForming a fuel and oxidant mixture 206. Additionally or alternatively (particularly when a blower is used to deliver the oxidant contained in the combustion air), the oxidant or combustion air source 220 may be configured to entrain fuel and the fuel and oxidant travel through the dilution distance D_D. In some embodiments, a flue gas recirculation path 224 may be provided. Additionally or alternatively, the fuel nozzle 218 may be configured to emit a fuel jet selected to be a dilution distance D between the fuel jet traveling through the fuel nozzle 218 and the input face 212 of the perforated flame holder 102_DWhile entraining oxidant and entraining flue gas.

The fuel nozzle 218 may be configured to emit fuel through one or more fuel orifices 226 having an inner diameter dimension referred to as a "nozzle diameter". The perforated flame holder support structure 222 may support the perforated flame holder 102 at a distance D away from the fuel nozzles 218 that is greater than 20 times the nozzle diameter_DReceives a fuel and oxidant mixture 206. In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 is disposed a distance D between 100 and 1100 times the nozzle diameter away from the fuel nozzle 218_DReceives a fuel and oxidant mixture 206. Preferably, the perforated flame holder support structure 222 is configured to hold the perforated flame holder 102 at a distance away from the fuel nozzle 218 of about 200 times the nozzle diameter or greater. When the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 travels about 200 times the nozzle diameter or greater, the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 is sufficiently homogenized to minimize the production of NOx by the combustion reaction 302.

According to an embodiment, the fuel and oxidant source 202 may alternatively comprise a premixed fuel and oxidant source. The premixed fuel and oxidant source may include a premixing chamber (not shown), a fuel nozzle configured to output fuel into the premixing chamber, and an oxidant (e.g., combustion air) passage configured to output oxidant into the premixing chamber. The flame arrestor may be disposed between the premixed fuel and oxidant source and the perforated flame holder 102 and configured to prevent flame flashback into the premixed fuel and oxidant source.

Whether configured for entrainment in the combustion volume 204 or for premixing, the oxidant source 220 may include a blower configured to force the oxidant through the fuel and oxidant sources 202.

The perforated flame holder support structure 222 may be configured to support the perforated flame holder 102 from, for example, a bottom (floor) or a wall (not shown) of the combustion volume 204. In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder support structure 222 supports the perforated flame holder 102 from the fuel and oxidant source 202. Alternatively, the perforated flame holder support structure 222 may suspend the perforated flame holder 102 from an overhead structure (e.g., a flue in the case of an up-firing system). The perforated flame holder support structure 222 can support the perforated flame holder 102 in various orientations and directions.

The perforated flame holder 102 can include a single perforated flame holder body 208. In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 can include a plurality of adjacent perforated flame holder sections that collectively provide a tiled perforated flame holder 102.

The perforated flame holder support structure 222 may be configured to support the plurality of perforated flame holder sections. The perforated flame holder support structure 222 can include a metal superalloy, a bonding material, and/or a ceramic refractory material. In embodiments, the plurality of adjacent perforated flame holder sections may be joined by a fiber reinforced refractory cement.

The perforated flame holder 102 can have a width dimension W between opposite sides of the peripheral surface 216 that is at least twice a thickness dimension T between the input face 212 and the output face 214. In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 can have a width dimension W between opposing sides of the peripheral surface 216 that is at least three times, at least six times, or at least nine times the thickness dimension T between the input face 212 and the output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102.

In an embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 may have a width dimension W that is less than a width of the combustion volume 204. This may allow the flue gas recirculation path 224 from above to below the perforated flame holder 102 to be between the peripheral surface 216 of the perforated flame holder 102 and the combustion volume wall (not shown).

Referring again to fig. 2 and 3, the perforations 210 may have various shapes. In one embodiment, the perforations 210 may comprise elongated squares, each square having a transverse dimension D between opposing sides thereof. In another embodiment, the perforations 210 may comprise elongated hexagons, each hexagon having a transverse dimension D between opposing faces. In yet another implementation, the perforations 210 may comprise hollow cylinders each having a transverse dimension D corresponding to the diameter of the cylinder. In another embodiment, the perforations 210 may comprise truncated cones or truncated pyramids (e.g., frustums), each having a transverse dimension D that is radially symmetric with respect to a length axis extending from the input face 212 to the output face 214. In some embodiments, perforations 210 may each have a lateral dimension D that is equal to or greater than a quenching distance of a flame based on standard reference conditions. Alternatively, the perforations 210 may have a lateral dimension D that is less than a standard reference quenching distance.

In the scope of an embodiment, each perforation of the plurality of perforations 210 has a transverse dimension D of between 0.05 inches and 1.0 inches. Preferably, each perforation of the plurality of perforations 210 has a transverse dimension D of between 0.1 inches and 0.5 inches. For example, each of the plurality of perforations 210 has a transverse dimension D of about 0.2 to 0.4 inches.

The void fraction of the perforated flame holder 102 is defined as the total volume of all perforations 210 in a section of the perforated flame holder 102 divided by the total volume of the perforated flame holder 102 containing the perforated flame holder body 208 and the perforations 210. The perforated flame holder 102 should have a void fraction between 0.10 and 0.90. In an embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 may have a void fraction between 0.30 and 0.80. In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 may have a void fraction of about 0.70. The use of a void fraction of about 0.70 has been found to be particularly effective for producing very low NOx.

The perforated flame holder 102 may be formed from a fiber-reinforced cast refractory material and/or a refractory material such as an aluminum silicate material. For example, the perforated flame holder 102 may be formed to include mullite or cordierite. Additionally or alternatively, the perforated flame holder body 208 may include a metal superalloy, such as inconel or hastelloy. The perforated flame holder body 208 may define a honeycomb structure. Honeycomb structures are industry specific terms that need not strictly refer to cells of hexagonal cross-section and most often include square cross-sections. Other cross-sectional areas of the honeycomb structure are also known.

The inventors have discovered that the perforated flame holder 102 may be manufactured by Applied Ceramics, Inc. of Doraville, South Carolina, available from Applied Ceramics, Doraville, IncA ceramic honeycomb structure is formed.

The perforations 210 may be parallel to each other and perpendicular to the input face 212 and the output face 214. In another implementation, the perforations 210 may be formed parallel to each other and at an angle relative to the input face 212 and the output face 214. In another embodiment, perforations 210 may not be parallel to each other. In another embodiment, the perforations 210 may be non-parallel to each other and do not intersect. In another embodiment, perforations 210 may intersect. The perforated flame holder body 208 may be one unitary piece or may be formed from multiple sections.

In another embodiment, which is not necessarily preferred, the perforated flame holder 102 may be formed from a reticulated ceramic material. The term "reticulated" refers to a structure that resembles a mesh. Reticulated ceramic materials are often made by dissolving a slurry into a sponge having a specified porosity, allowing the slurry to harden, and burning off the sponge and curing the ceramic.

In another embodiment, which is not necessarily preferred, the perforated flame holder 102 may be formed from a ceramic material that has been punched, bored, or cast to create the channels.

In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder 102 may comprise a plurality of tubes or pipes bundled together. The plurality of perforations 210 may comprise hollow cylinders and optionally may also comprise interstitial spaces between bundled tubes. In an embodiment, the plurality of tubes may comprise ceramic tubes. Refractory cement may be included between the tubes and used to adhere the tubes together. In another embodiment, the plurality of tubes may comprise metal (e.g., superalloy) tubes. The plurality of tubes may be held together by metal tension members on the circumference of the plurality of tubes and arranged to hold the plurality of tubes together. The metallic tension member may comprise a stainless steel, a superalloy metallic wire, and/or a superalloy metallic strip.

The perforated flame holder body 208 may alternatively contain a stack of sheets of perforated material, each sheet having openings that connect with the openings of the underlying and overlying sheets. The perforated foil may comprise perforated metal sheets, ceramic foils and/or expanded foils. In another embodiment, the perforated flame holder body 208 may include discontinuous filler bodies such that perforations 210 are formed in interstitial spaces between the discontinuous filler bodies. In one embodiment, the discontinuous filler bodies comprise structured filler shapes. In another embodiment, the discontinuous package contains an arbitrary filler shape. For example, the discontinuous packing bodies may comprise ceramic Raschig rings (Raschig rings), ceramic Berl saddles (Berl saddle), ceramic ring Intalox saddles (Intalox saddle), and/or metal rings or other shapes (e.g., ultralach rings) that may be held together by metal cages.

The inventors contemplate that the burner system 200 including the perforated flame holder 102 provides various explanations of the reasons for such clean combustion.

According to embodiments, the perforated flame holder 102 may act as a heat source to sustain the combustion reaction 302 even under conditions where the combustion reaction 302 is unstable when supported by a conventional flame holder. This capability may be utilized to support combustion using leaner fuel-oxidant mixtures than is generally feasible. Thus, according to an embodiment, at the point of contact of the fuel stream 206 with the input face 212 of the perforated flame holder 102, the average fuel to oxidant ratio of the fuel stream 206 is below the (traditional) lower combustion limit of the fuel component of the fuel stream 206-the lower combustion limit defines the lowest concentration of fuel that the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 will combust when exposed to a transient ignition source at normal atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature of 25 ℃ (77 ° F).

The perforated flame holder 102 and the system comprising the perforated flame holder 102 described herein were found to be capable of providing substantially complete combustion of CO (from single digit ppm down to undetectable, depending on experimental conditions) while supporting low NOx. According to one explanation, such performance may be achieved due to sufficient mixing (among other strategies) to reduce peak flame temperatures. Flame temperature tends to peak under slightly rich conditions, which may be evident in any diffusion flame that is not well mixed. With sufficient mixing, a homogeneous and slightly lean mixture may be achieved prior to combustion. This combination may result in reduced flame temperature and, therefore, reduced NOx formation. In one embodiment, "slightly lean" may refer to 3% O₂I.e., an equivalence ratio of-0.87. It is possible to use even thinner mixtures, but may result in increased O₂And (4) horizontal. Further, the inventors believe that the perforated wall 308 may act as a heat sink for the combustion fluid. This effect may alternatively or additionally reduce combustion temperatures and reduce NOx.

According to another explanation, if the combustion reaction 302 occurs in an extremely short duration, the production of NOx may be reduced. Fast combustion results in the time during which the reactants (including oxygen and entrained nitrogen) are exposed to the NOx formation temperature being too short for NOx formation kinetics to result in significant production of NOx. The time required for the reactants to pass through the perforated flame holder 102 is extremely short compared to conventional flames. The low NOx production associated with perforated flame holder combustion may therefore be related to the short duration required for the reactants (and entrained nitrogen) to pass through the perforated flame holder 102.

FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a method 400 for operating a combustor system incorporating the perforated flame holder shown and described herein. To operate a burner system containing a perforated flame holder, the perforated flame holder is first heated to a temperature sufficient to sustain combustion of the fuel and oxidant mixture.

According to a simplified description, the method 400 begins with step 402, wherein the perforated flame holder is preheated to a start-up temperature Ts. After the perforated flame holder is raised to the start-up temperature, the method proceeds to step 404, where fuel and oxidant are provided to the perforated flame holder and combustion is maintained by the perforated flame holder.

According to a more detailed description, step 402 begins with step 406, wherein start-up energy is provided at the perforated flame holder. At the same time or after the start-up energy is provided, decision step 408 determines whether the temperature T of the perforated flame holder is at or above the start-up temperature Ts. As long as the temperature of the perforated flame holder is below its start-up temperature, the method cycles between steps 406 and 408 within the preheat step 402. In decision step 408, if the temperature T of at least a predetermined portion of the perforated flame holder is greater than or equal to the start-up temperature, the method 400 proceeds to general step 404, where fuel and oxidant are supplied and combustion is maintained by the perforated flame holder.

Step 404 may be broken down into several discrete steps, at least some of which may occur simultaneously.

Proceeding from decision step 408, a fuel and oxidant mixture is provided to the perforated flame holder, as shown in step 410. The fuel and oxidant may be provided by fuel and oxidant sources, including, for example, separate fuel nozzles and oxidant (e.g., combustion air) sources. In this method, the fuel and oxidant are output in one or more selected directions such that the fuel and oxidant mixture is received by the input face of the perforated flame holder. The fuel may entrain combustion air (or alternatively, the combustion air may dilute the fuel) to provide a fuel and oxidant mixture at the input face of the perforated flame holder with a fuel dilution selected for a stable combustion reaction that may be held within the perforations of the perforated flame holder.

Proceeding to step 412, the combustion reaction is maintained by the perforated flame holder.

In step 414, heat may be output from the perforated flame holder. The heat output from the perforated flame holder can be used, for example, to power industrial processes, heat working fluids, generate electricity, or provide motive force.

In optional step 416, the presence of combustion may be sensed. Various sensing methods have been used and are contemplated by the inventors. In general, the combustion held by the perforated flame holder is extremely stable and there are no abnormal sensing requirements for the system. Combustion sensing may be performed using infrared sensors, video sensors, ultraviolet sensors, charged species sensors, thermocouples, thermoelectric stakes, flame sticks, and/or other combustion sensing devices. In an additional or alternative variation of step 416, a pilot flame or other ignition source may be provided to cause ignition of the fuel and oxidant mixture in the event of loss of combustion at the perforated flame holder.

Proceeding to decision step 418, if combustion is sensed to be unstable, the method 400 may exit to step 424, where an error routine is executed. For example, the error routine may include turning off fuel flow, re-performing the preheating step 402, outputting an alarm signal, igniting a backup combustion system, or other steps. If in decision step 418, it is determined that combustion in the perforated flame holder will be stable, then the method 400 proceeds to decision step 420, where it is determined whether the combustion parameters should be changed. If the combustion parameters are not to be changed, the method loops (within step 404) back to step 410 and the combustion process continues. If a change in the combustion parameter is indicated, the method 400 proceeds to step 422, where the combustion parameter change is performed. After changing the combustion parameters, the method loops (within step 404) back to step 410 and combustion continues.

For example, if a change in heat demand is encountered, the combustion parameters may be scheduled to change. For example, if less heat is required (e.g., due to reduced power requirements, reduced motive force requirements, or lower industrial process throughput), the fuel and oxidant flow rates may be reduced in step 422. Conversely, if the heat demand increases, then the fuel and oxidant flow rates may be increased. Additionally or alternatively, if the combustion system is in a start-up mode, the fuel and oxidant flows may be gradually increased to the perforated flame holder in one or more iterations of the loop within step 404.

Referring again to fig. 2, the burner system 200 includes a heater 228 operably coupled to the perforated flame holder 102. As described in connection with fig. 3 and 4, the perforated flame holder 102 operates by outputting heat to the incoming fuel and oxidant mixture 206. After combustion is established, this heat is provided by the combustion reaction 302; but prior to combustion being established, heat is provided by heater 228.

Various heating devices are used and contemplated by the inventors. In some embodiments, the heater 228 may include a flame holder configured to support a heater for heating the perforated flame holder 102. The fuel and oxidant source 202 may include a fuel nozzle 218 configured to emit a fuel stream 206 and an oxidant source 220 configured to output an oxidant (e.g., combustion air) adjacent to the fuel stream 206. The fuel nozzles 218 and the oxidant source 220 may be configured to output the fuel stream 206 for gradual dilution by the oxidant (e.g., combustion air). The perforated flame holder 102 may be configured to receive the diluted fuel and oxidant mixture 206, which supports a combustion reaction 302 that is stabilized by the perforated flame holder 102 when the perforated flame holder 102 is at an operating temperature. In contrast, the start-up flame holder may be configured to support a start-up flame at a location corresponding to a relatively unmixed fuel and oxidant mixture that is stable without the stabilization provided by the heated perforated flame holder 102.

The burner system 200 may further include a controller 118 operably coupled to the heater 228 and the data interface 232. For example, the controller 118 may be configured to control a start-up flame holder actuator configured to cause the start-up flame holder to hold a start-up flame when the perforated flame holder 102 requires preheating, and not hold a start-up flame when the perforated flame holder 102 is at an operating temperature (e.g., when T ≧ Ts).

Various methods for actuating the start-up flame are contemplated. In one embodiment, the start-up flame holder includes a mechanically actuated bluff body configured to be actuated to intercept the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 to cause heat recirculation and/or stabilize the vortex and thereby hold the start-up flame; or actuated to not intercept the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 to cause the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 to proceed to the perforated flame holder 102. In another embodiment, a fuel control valve, blower, and/or damper may be used to select a fuel and oxidant mixture 206 flow rate that is low enough for start-up flame jet stabilization; and upon reaching the perforated flame holder 102 operating temperature, the flow rate may be increased to "blow out" the start-up flame. In another embodiment, the heater 228 may comprise a power source operably coupled to the controller 118 and configured to apply an electrical charge or voltage to the fuel and oxidant mixture 206. The conductive start-up flame holder may be selectively coupled to a selected voltage ground or other voltage to attract charge in the fuel and oxidant mixture 206. The inventors have found that the attraction of the charge causes the conductive start flame holder to hold the start flame.

In another embodiment, the heater 228 may comprise a resistive heater configured to output heat to the perforated flame holder 102 and/or to the fuel and oxidant mixture 206. The resistive heater may be configured to heat the perforated flame holder 102 to an operating temperature. The heater 228 may further include a power source and a switch operable under the control of the controller 118 to selectively couple the power source to the resistive heater 228.

The resistive heater 228 may be formed in various ways. For example, the resistive heater 228 may be threaded through at least a portion of the perforation 210 defined by the perforated flame holder body 208A wire (commercially available from Sandvik materials technology division, Sandvik AB, of halstahama, sweden). Alternatively, the heater 228 may comprise an induction heater, a high energy beam heaterThermal heaters (e.g., microwave or laser), friction heaters, resistive ceramic coatings, or other types of heating techniques.

Other forms of activation devices are contemplated. For example, the heater 228 may include an electrical discharge igniter or a hot surface igniter configured to ignite the oxidant and fuel output pulses. Additionally or alternatively, the start-up apparatus may include a pilot flame apparatus configured to ignite the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 that would otherwise enter the perforated flame holder 102. The discharge igniter, hot surface igniter, and/or pilot flame apparatus may be operably coupled to the controller 118, which may cause the discharge igniter or pilot flame apparatus to maintain combustion of the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 in or upstream of the perforated flame holder 102 before the perforated flame holder 102 is sufficiently heated to maintain combustion.

The combustor system 200 may further include a sensor 234 operatively coupled to the controller 118. The sensor 234 may include a thermal sensor configured to detect infrared radiation or temperature of the perforated flame holder 102. The control circuitry 118 may be configured to control the heater 228 in response to input from the sensor 234. Optionally, a fuel control valve 236 may be operably coupled to the controller 118 and configured to control the flow of fuel to the fuel and oxidant source 202. Additionally or alternatively, an oxidant blower or damper 238 may be operatively coupled to the controller 118 and configured to control the flow of oxidant (or combustion air).

The sensor 234 may further include a combustion sensor operably coupled to the control circuitry 118 that is configured to detect temperature, video images, and/or spectral characteristics of the combustion reaction 302 held by the perforated flame holder 102. The fuel control valve 236 may be configured to control the flow of fuel from the fuel source to the fuel and oxidant source 202. The controller 118 may be configured to control the fuel control valve 236 in response to input from the combustion sensor 234. The controller 118 may be configured to control the fuel control valve 236 and/or the oxidant blower or damper 238 to control the preheat flame type of the heater 228 to heat the perforated flame holder 102 to an operating temperature. The controller 118 may similarly control the fuel control valve 236 and/or the oxidant blower or damper 238 to vary the flow of the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 in response to changes in heat demand received as data via the data interface 232.

Fig. 5A is a simplified perspective view of a combustion system 500 including another alternative perforated flame holder 102, according to an embodiment. The perforated flame holder 102 is a reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder according to an embodiment. Fig. 5B is a simplified side cross-sectional view of a portion of the reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder 102 of fig. 5A, according to an embodiment. According to embodiments, the perforated flame holder 102 of fig. 5A, 5B may be implemented in various combustion systems described herein. The perforated flame holder 102 is configured to support a combustion reaction (e.g., the combustion reaction 302 of fig. 3) of the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 received from the fuel and oxidant source 202 at least partially within the perforated flame holder 102. According to embodiments, the perforated flame holder 102 may be configured to support a combustion reaction (e.g., the combustion reaction 302 of fig. 3) of the fuel and oxidant mixture 206 upstream, downstream, inside, and adjacent to the mesh ceramic perforated flame holder 102.

According to an embodiment, the perforated flame holder body 208 may include mesh fibers 539. The mesh fibers 539 may define branch perforations 210 woven around and through the mesh fibers 539. According to an embodiment, perforations 210 are formed as passages between the mesh fibers 539.

According to an embodiment, the mesh fibers 539 are formed into a mesh foamed ceramic. According to an embodiment, the reticulated fibers 539 are formed using reticulated polymer foam as a template. According to an embodiment, the mesh fibers 539 may comprise an alumina silicate. According to an embodiment, the reticulated fibers 539 may be formed of extruded mullite or cordierite. According to an embodiment, the mesh fibers 539 may comprise zirconia. According to an embodiment, the mesh fibers 539 may comprise silicon carbide.

The term "reticulated fiber" refers to a structure that resembles a mesh. According to an embodiment, the mesh fibers 539 are formed of an extruded ceramic material. In the mesh fiber embodiment, the interaction between the fuel and oxidant mixture 206, the combustion reaction, and the heat transfer into and out of the perforated flame holder body 208 may function similar to the embodiments shown and described above with respect to fig. 2-4. One difference in activity is the mixing between the perforations 210, as the mesh fibers 539 form a discontinuous perforated flame holder body 208 that allows flow to and from adjacent perforations 210.

According to an embodiment, the mesh fibers 539 mesh is sufficiently open for the downstream mesh fibers 539 to emit radiation for receipt by the upstream mesh fibers 539 for heating the upstream mesh fibers 539 sufficiently to maintain combustion of the fuel and oxidant mixture 206. The thermal conduction paths between the mesh fibers 539 (e.g., the thermal conduction paths 312 in FIG. 3) are reduced due to the separation of the mesh fibers 539 as compared to the continuous perforated flame holder body 208. This may result in relatively more heat being transferred from the heat-receiving region or area (e.g., heat-receiving region 306 in fig. 3) of the mesh fibers 539 to the heat-output region or area (e.g., heat-output region 310 in fig. 3) via thermal radiation (shown as element 304 in fig. 3).

According to an embodiment, individual perforations 210 may extend between an input face 212 and an output face 214 of the perforated flame holder 102. Perforations 210 may have varying lengths L. According to an embodiment, individual perforations 210 are not clearly defined by length L because perforations 210 branch into and out of each other.

According to embodiments, the perforated flame holder 102 is configured to support or hold a combustion reaction (see element 302 of fig. 3) or a flame at least partially between the input face 212 and the output face 214. According to an embodiment, the input face 212 corresponds to a surface of the perforated flame holder 102 proximate to the fuel nozzle 218 or a surface that first receives fuel. According to an embodiment, the input face 212 corresponds to the extent to which the reticulated fibers 539 are proximate to the fuel nozzle 218. According to an embodiment, output face 214 corresponds to a surface that is remote from fuel nozzle 218 or opposite input face 212. According to an embodiment, the input face 212 corresponds to the extent to which the reticulated fibers 539 are distal from the fuel nozzle 218 or opposite the input face 212.

According to embodiments, formation of the thermal boundary layer 314, heat transfer between the perforated reaction holder body 208 and the gas flowing through the perforations 210, a characteristic perforation width dimensionD and length L may each be considered to relate to an average or overall path through the perforated flame holder 102. In other words, the dimension D may be determined as the root mean square of the individual Dn values determined at each point along the flow path. Similarly, the length L may be a length that includes a length contributed by the degree of twist of the flow path, which may be slightly longer than the linear distance T from the input face 212 to the output face 214 through the perforated flame holder 102_RH. According to an embodiment, the void fraction (expressed as (total perforated flame holder 102 volume-mesh fibers 539 volume)/total volume) is about 70%.

According to an embodiment, the reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder 102 is a block (tile) of about 1"x 4" x 4 ". According to an embodiment, the reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder 102 comprises about 10 pores per square inch of surface area. Other materials and dimensions may be used for the reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder 102 in accordance with the principles of the present invention.

According to embodiments, the reticulated ceramic perforated flame holder 102 may comprise shapes and sizes other than those described herein. For example, the perforated flame holder 102 can include reticulated ceramic blocks of greater or lesser dimensions than set forth above. Additionally, the mesh ceramic perforated flame holder 102 may comprise a shape other than a generally rectangular parallelepiped shape.

According to an embodiment, the mesh ceramic perforated flame holder 102 may include a plurality of mesh ceramic blocks. The plurality of reticulated ceramic blocks may be joined together such that each ceramic block is in direct contact with one or more adjacent reticulated ceramic blocks. The plurality of reticulated ceramic blocks may collectively form a single perforated flame holder 102. Alternatively, each reticulated ceramic block may be considered a distinct perforated flame holder 102.

Fig. 6 is a simplified diagram of a combustion system 600 according to an embodiment. The combustion system 600 may include a sensor 602 operatively coupled to the control circuitry 118. The sensor 602 may be configured to sense one or more of pressure and temperature.

FIG. 7 is an idealized graph 700 showing how the received signal varies with the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio at each of three environmental conditions 702, 704, 706. In one embodiment, the temperature is held constant and each curve 702, 704, 706 represents a different pressure.

In another implementation, the pressure is held constant and each curve 702, 704, 706 represents a different temperature. In another embodiment, each curve 702, 704, 706 represents a different pressure and temperature combination.

Referring to fig. 7, according to an embodiment, the control circuitry 118 may be configured to determine the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio as a function of a combination of values of the received signal and values of the sensed temperature and/or pressure.

Fig. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating a method 800 for measuring a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio, according to an embodiment.

According to an embodiment, method 800 includes step 802, in which ions are formed in a gas including a fuel and an oxidant. In step 804, a periodic voltage signal is applied to a first electrode adjacent to the gas. In step 806, a periodic response signal is operatively coupled to the second electrode through the gas. According to one embodiment, the periodic response signal may be generated based on a response of the ions to the periodic voltage signal. The method 800 may include converting the periodic response signal to a corresponding digital signal at step 808. In step 810, according to an embodiment, sensor signals corresponding to individual parameters of the gas are received. According to an embodiment, method 800 may include step 812, which includes applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for a function, and determining a value of the function corresponding to the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio.

According to an embodiment, the method 800 may further comprise maintaining the pressure of the gas constant. In an embodiment, receiving the sensor signal in step 810 may include receiving a signal corresponding to a temperature of the gas. Additionally or alternatively, the method 800 may include maintaining a temperature of the gas constant and receiving a sensor signal corresponding to a pressure of the gas in step 810. Additionally or alternatively, receiving the sensor signal in step 810 may include receiving a temperature signal corresponding to a temperature of the gas and receiving a pressure signal corresponding to the gas.

According to an embodiment, forming ions in the gas in step 802 may include operating an ionizer. Various electrode configurations and types are contemplated. According to an embodiment, operating the ionizer may include applying a voltage to the corona electrode and/or the dielectric barrier electrode.

According to an embodiment, the corona electrode may be arranged in a gas volume in which the first electrode and the second electrode may be arranged.

Additionally or alternatively, forming ions in the gas in step 802 may include operating an ionizer in the removed gas volume and delivering at least a portion of the ions from the removed gas volume to the gas volume in which the first and second electrodes are disposed.

According to an embodiment, method 800 may include determining whether the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio is within the flammability limit of the fuel in step 814 and actuating a valve to change the fuel-air equivalence ratio to a ratio that is outside the flammability limit of the fuel in step 816.

According to an embodiment, actuating the valve may comprise purging the gas with an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen or carbon dioxide).

According to an embodiment, the fuel may comprise kerosene.

According to an embodiment, the method 800 may further comprise isolating ions within a grounded screen forming a flame arrestor.

Additionally or alternatively, forming ions in the gas in step 802 may include supporting a combustion reaction in the gas.

According to an embodiment, the method 800 may further include outputting the fuel and air toward the perforated flame holder. According to an embodiment, forming ions in the gas in step 802 may include supporting a combustion reaction at least partially within the perforated flame holder.

According to an embodiment, the first electrode may be arranged to output a periodic voltage signal towards the perforated flame holder, and the second electrode is arranged to receive a periodic response signal at least partly through the perforated flame holder.

According to an embodiment, the method 800 may further include determining whether the fuel-air equivalence ratio is within a range in step 814, and taking corrective action if the fuel-air equivalence ratio is not within the range in step 816.

According to an embodiment, the method 800 may further include determining whether the fuel-air equivalence ratio is at or near a combustion limit of the fuel in step 814, and actuating a valve to change the fuel-air equivalence ratio to a value closer to a center of the combustion limit in step 816.

According to an embodiment, determining whether the fuel-air equivalence ratio is near the combustion limit in step 814 may include determining whether the equivalence ratio is outside the combustion limit.

According to an embodiment, step 812 includes applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for the function. Receiving the sensor signal in step 810 may include performing analog-to-digital (a/D) conversion on the sensor signal to form a digital sensor signal. Applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for the function may comprise using the digital signal and the digital sensor signal to address a look-up table (LUT) or as parameters in a query database.

According to an embodiment, the digital sensor signal may be used to determine a page or region of a table (LUT or database), and the digital signal may select an address in the page or region.

In an alternative embodiment, applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for the function may include applying one or both of the digital signal and the digital sensor signal as parameters in an equation. According to an embodiment, the value of the function may be a fuel-air equivalence ratio.

According to an embodiment, the burner may be an industrial burner.

According to embodiments, the fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio may be a fuel-air equivalence ratio.

Fig. 9 is a schematic illustration of a combustion system 900 including the combustion sensor 234, according to an embodiment. The combustion sensor 234 may include a waveform generator 964 in the sensor controller 945 that may be configured to output a time-varying voltage. An amplifier 966 (which may be inverting or non-inverting) may be operably coupled to the waveform generator 964 and may be configured to amplify the logic levels from the waveform generator 964 to a broadcast voltage. The electrical filter 968 may be operably coupled to the amplifier 966 and may be configured to protect the circuits 966, 964, 978, 976, 974 in the signal controller from electrostatic discharge. The electrical filter 968 may be operatively coupled to the first electrode 112 via a first electrical lead 944 a. According to an embodiment, the first electrode 112 may be configured to broadcast the amplified waveform as a broadcast signal to the second electrode 114 by crossing the gap of the perforated flame holder 102.

According to an embodiment, a second electrical filter 972 (which may optionally be identical to the electrical filter 968) may be operably coupled to the second electrode 114 via a second electrical lead 944b and may be configured to protect the circuits 974, 976, 978, 964, 966 from electrostatic discharge.

According to an embodiment, the second amplifier 974 may be configured to raise the receive voltage to a logic level.

The receiver circuit 976 may be operably coupled to a second amplifier 974 and may be configured to receive and digitize the amplified signal received by the second electrode 114. According to an embodiment, the signal analyzer 978 may be operatively coupled to the receiver circuit 976. The signal analyzer 978 may be configured to analyze the digital data generated by the receiver circuit 976 and determine a fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio. According to an embodiment, the signal analyzer 978 may report a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio or a change in a fuel-oxidant equivalence ratio via the digital interface 980.

The sensor controller 945 may determine the fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio based on the signals received from the second electrode 114. The sensor controller 945 may determine the fuel-to-oxidant equivalence ratio based on a digital signal generated by performing analog-to-digital conversion on the signal communicated from the second electrode 114.

According to an embodiment, the sensor controller may apply the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for the function. The sensor signal may be a temperature signal. The sensor signal may also be converted to a digitized sensor signal before being applied as a parameter for the function. Applying the digital signal and the sensor signal as parameters for the function may comprise using the digital signal and the digital sensor signal to address a look-up table (LUT) or as parameters in a database query. The lookup table or database may be contained in the memory of the sensor controller 945 or may be external to the sensor controller 945.

The signal analyzer 978 may correspond to the controller 118 or may be separate from the controller 118.

In one embodiment, electrical filters 968, 972 each comprise a vacuum bipolar electrode transmitter operably coupled to ground.

While various aspects and embodiments of the invention have been disclosed, other aspects and embodiments are also contemplated. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.