阅读说明：本技术 制造方解石纳米流体通道 (Manufacture of calcite nanofluidic channels ) 是由 车东奎 穆罕默德·巴德里·阿勒奥泰比 阿里·阿卜杜拉·阿勒-优素福 于 2019-08-27 设计创作，主要内容包括：本发明描述了用于制造纳米流体器件中的方解石通道的方法。将光致抗蚀剂层涂覆到氮化硅(SiN)衬底的顶表面上。在涂覆光致抗蚀剂层后,用电子束以预定图案扫描光致抗蚀剂层。将扫描的光致抗蚀剂显影,从而以预定图案暴露SiN衬底的顶表面的部分。使用方解石前体气体,利用原子层沉积(ALD)以预定图案沉积方解石。使用溶剂移除光致抗蚀剂层的剩余部分以暴露在SiN衬底的顶表面上以预定图案沉积的方解石,其中沉积的方解石的宽度在50至100纳米(nm)的范围内。(Methods for making calcite channels in nanofluidic devices are described. A photoresist layer is applied to a top surface of a silicon nitride (SiN) substrate. After the photoresist layer is coated, the photoresist layer is scanned in a predetermined pattern with an electron beam. The scanned photoresist is developed to expose portions of the top surface of the SiN substrate in a predetermined pattern. Calcite is deposited in a predetermined pattern using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) using a calcite precursor gas. The remaining portion of the photoresist layer is removed using a solvent to expose calcite deposited in a predetermined pattern on the top surface of the SiN substrate, wherein the width of the deposited calcite is in the range of 50 to 100 nanometers (nm).)

1. A method, the method comprising:

applying a photoresist layer onto a top surface of a silicon nitride (SiN) substrate;

scanning the photoresist layer with an electron beam in a predetermined pattern after coating the photoresist layer;

developing the scanned photoresist to expose portions of the top surface of the SiN substrate in the predetermined pattern;

depositing calcite in the predetermined pattern using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) using a calcite precursor gas; and

removing remaining portions of the photoresist layer using a solvent to expose calcite deposited in the predetermined pattern on the top surface of the SiN substrate, wherein a width of the deposited calcite is in a range of 50 to 100 nanometers (nm).

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

inserting the SiN substrate into a liquid cell Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) support having an inlet and an outlet;

depositing a sample onto the SiN substrate and the deposited calcite;

sealing a chip on the TEM bracket by using a window; and

imaging the chip using TEM while injecting the sample through the inlet and removing the sample through the outlet.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the size of the SiN substrate depends on and is smaller than the size of the holes in the TEM support.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein applying the photoresist layer employs an epoxy-based negative photoresist layer spin-coated on the surface of the SiN substrate.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the epoxy-based negative photoresist is Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or SU-8.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein the sample is a liquid or a liquid containing nanoparticles.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the solvent comprises Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether Acetate (PGMEA), ethyl lactate, or diacetone alcohol.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the window comprises an electrically conductive and optically transparent SiN window.

9. A system, the system comprising:

a nanofluidic device, wherein the device comprises: a bottom portion comprising a substrate and a top portion comprising a calcite channel structure comprising at least one side having a length in the range of about 50 to 100 nanometers;

a housing for the device; and

an electron source for providing an electron beam.

10. The system of claim 9, wherein the substrate comprises silicon.

11. The system of claim 9, wherein the electron source is a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

12. The system of claim 9, wherein the housing comprises:

a top including a window;

a bottom configured to support the device;

an inlet line configured to enable fluid to enter the device; and

an outlet line configured to enable the fluid to exit the device.

13. The system of claim 9, wherein the window comprises an electrically conductive and optically transparent material.

14. The system of claim 13, wherein the electrically conductive and optically transparent material comprises SiN.

Technical Field

The present description relates to nanofluidics, and more particularly to petrophysical applications.

Background

Enhanced oil recovery processes are used to increase the amount of crude oil that can be extracted from an oil field. At small scales (channel sizes on the order of nanometers or micrometers), the fluids may behave differently because factors such as surface tension begin to play a major role in the system. With a better understanding of the fluid behavior at small scales, enhanced oil recovery processes can be improved to extract even more oil from source rocks or reservoirs. Microfluidic models that can replicate the conditions found in subterranean reservoirs have been developed to observe, evaluate and understand physical and chemical phenomena in oil extraction and recovery.

Microfluidics and nanofluidics are considered important methods for characterizing the interaction of brine and crude oil in petrophysical applications. To understand the physical and chemical phenomena of fluid-fluid and fluid-calcite rock interactions at the atomic scale, nano-sized calcite cylindrical channels in nanofluidic chips may be required. This may also be the case for atomic scale analysis using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Conventional calcite channels in microfluidic chips can be fabricated with etched native calcite crystals, sized on the micrometer scale.

Summary of The Invention

The present disclosure describes methods of making calcite channels for nanofluidics. Certain aspects of the subject matter described herein may be practiced as methods. A photoresist layer is applied to the top surface of a silicon nitride (SiN) substrate. After the photoresist layer is coated, the photoresist layer is scanned in a predetermined pattern with an electron beam. The scanned photoresist is developed to expose portions of the top surface of the SiN substrate in a predetermined pattern. Calcite is deposited in a predetermined pattern using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) using a calcite precursor gas. The remaining portion of the photoresist layer is removed using a solvent to expose calcite deposited in a predetermined pattern on the top surface of the SiN substrate, wherein the width of the deposited calcite is in the range of 50 to 100 nanometers (nm).

Advantages of the methods and systems described in this disclosure may include the following. The use of electron beam lithography (EL) can make it easier to control the location, pattern and size of the calcite channels produced. This technique can be used with Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) for atomic scale analysis. The height of the channels can be precisely controlled by using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD).

The details of one or more implementations of the subject matter in this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description. Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.

Drawings

Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an example method for fabricating a nanofluidic device according to one embodiment.

Fig. 2A is a cross-sectional view illustrating a schematic diagram of an example of a nanofluidic device according to one embodiment.

Fig. 2B is a top view of a schematic diagram illustrating an example of a nanofluidic device according to one embodiment.

Fig. 3 is a schematic diagram illustrating an example of a nanofluidic device system according to one embodiment.

Fig. 4 is a diagram of an example of an image produced by the system.

Fig. 5 is a flow diagram of an example method for fabricating a nanofluidic device according to an embodiment.

Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements.

Detailed Description

The following detailed description describes a method of making calcite channels for nanofluidics and is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the disclosed subject matter in the context of one or more specific embodiments. Various modifications, changes, and substitutions to the disclosed embodiments may be made and will be apparent to those skilled in the art, and the general principles defined may be applied to other embodiments and applications without departing from the scope of the disclosure. In some instances, details that are not necessary for an understanding of the described subject matter may be omitted so as not to obscure one or more of the described embodiments with details that are not required since such details are within the skill of one of ordinary skill in the art. The present disclosure is not intended to be limited to the embodiments shown or described but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and features described.

A portion of the world's oil reserves are present in carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite. However, the characteristics of these rocks, such as texture, porosity, and permeability, can vary considerably, even over various regions within the same formation. This difference can present challenges in achieving consistent flow of oil. Techniques related to microfluidics can be used to characterize crude oil interactions with different fluids and with rock formations in petrophysical applications. For example, conventional calcite (CaCO)₃) Channel models may include etched native calcite crystals, but these models are typically micron-scale. Fluidics at the nanoscale (i.e., on the order of nanometers) may be useful in understanding the physical and chemical phenomena of fluid-fluid and fluid-calcite rock interactions at the atomic scale.

The present disclosure describes techniques for fabricating nano-sized calcite cylindrical patterned nanofluidic chips by using a combination of electron beam lithography (EL) and Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). In addition, the fabricated chips may be packaged with a transparent silicon nitride (SiN) window and mounted in a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) holder. This type of arrangement of the fabricated chips can be used to characterize fluid-fluid or fluid-calcite interactions with atomic resolution in TEM. These types of characterizations may provide a better understanding of fluid-rock interactions and fluid-fluid interactions at higher resolutions (such as by using advanced electron microscopy).

Conventional methods for fabricating channels in microfluidic chips may generally include methods utilizing glass or silicon etching, photolithography, and polymerization. However, when using these techniques, it may be difficult to fabricate nano-sized cylindrical channels, as the use of these fabrication methods may often lead to resolution problems and challenges. The manufacture of calcite channels may be more challenging because manufacturing may include etching of native calcite crystals or thin film-based channels. In order to observe and study physical and chemical phenomena in the interface between calcite and brine or crude oil using high resolution TEM, techniques can be used to fabricate nano-scale cylindrical calcite channels. The results can simulate the true nanoporous structure that naturally occurs in reservoir rock.

The techniques used with the present disclosure may be based on a combination of Electronic Lithography (EL) and Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) techniques. In some embodiments, the techniques may use steps such as the following.

A SiN substrate may be prepared which will ultimately be the bottom of the chip. The size of the SiN substrate may depend on the size of the holes in the TEM support and may typically be smaller than the holes (e.g., less than 3 millimeters (mm) in diameter).

After the SiN substrate is prepared, a photoresist may be spin coated on the surface of the SiN substrate. For example, the photoresist may be composed of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or SU-8, a non-trademarked material name for commonly used photoresists. The thickness of the coating layer may for example be similar to the height of the calcite channel and may depend on the requirements specified by the end user.

After spin coating a photoresist on the surface of the SiN substrate, a pattern may be drawn and etched onto the SiN substrate using the EL system. In some embodiments, the pattern may have a size in the range of 50 to 100nm diameter. The diameter will determine the size of the subsequent calcite channel.

After the pattern is drawn and etched, the etched hollow pattern may be filled with calcite by using ALD with a calcite precursor gas. After the calcite filling is complete, the photoresist may be removed using a solvent. The removal of the photoresist may leave a SiN substrate comprising only the manufactured calcite channel structure.

The SiN substrate may be inserted into a liquid cell TEM holder, where a sample (e.g., comprising a liquid or a liquid plus nanoparticles) may be dropped onto (or otherwise introduced into) the SiN substrate. The nanofluidic chip may be encapsulated with a transparent SiN window. The sealed nanofluidic chip can be placed in a TEM holder that can be inserted into a TEM chamber. In addition, the TEM chamber may include an inlet and an outlet that are also connected to the TEM support.

The use of SiN substrates in TEM may enable observation of fluid-rock interactions at the nanoscale level or at the atomic scale level. Furthermore, the nano-scale calcite channels produced may provide information that may be useful in understanding the fluid-calcite interactions inside the porous structure. This information can be used to help optimize the oil recovery process in the oil field. The nano-scale calcite channels in the manufactured nanofluidic chips for TEM liquid cell scaffolds may help understand the physical and chemical interactions between fluids and calcite with higher resolution (e.g., close to atomic scale). EL can more easily control the size of calcite channels at the nanoscale level than conventional processes. Furthermore, ALD can provide a precisely controlled height of calcite cylindrical channels.

Figure 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating one example of a method 100 for making calcite channels in a nanofluidic device. For example, the method 100 may be used in a process for manufacturing nano-sized calcite cylindrical patterned nanofluidic chips by using a combination of electron beam lithography and atomic layer deposition.

At 102, a photoresist is coated on a substrate. In certain embodiments, the photoresist is a negative photoresist, such as Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or SU-8. The substrate may have a clean and flat surface and may be made of, for example, silicon. The coating of the photoresist may be performed by spin coating to coat the photoresist layer on the substrate at a spin rate in the range of about 500 to 2000 revolutions per minute (rpm). The rotation rate may determine the thickness of the photoresist layer. The thickness of the photoresist layer may determine the height of the resulting calcite channels in the nanofluidic device. Thus, the thickness of the photoresist coating may be selected based on the desired height of the calcite channels in the nanofluidic device, e.g., a height of less than 10 centimeters (cm). The photoresist preparation may include Edge Bead Removal (EBR) to remove any photoresist buildup on the substrate edge. The preparation of the photoresist may include a baking step that involves baking at about 200 degrees fahrenheit (F) for a period of time that depends on the thickness of the photoresist layer. The baking temperature may also affect the duration of the baking step. From 102, method 100 proceeds to 104.

At 104, a portion of the photoresist is exposed to an electron beam. Exposing a portion of the photoresist to an electron beam may cause the portion of the photoresist to be removed. In some embodiments, the photoresist may be removed using electron beam lithography. Electron beam lithography is a technique for patterning on the nanometer (nm) scale and involves scanning an electron beam over a photoresist, such as PDMS. The photolithography process includes exposure of the resist and development of the exposed resist to form a pattern in the remaining resist. Exposure of the resist to an energy source, such as an electron beam, physically modifies the resist, chemically modifies the resist, or both. In certain embodiments, the electron beam may be provided by a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). A post-exposure bake step may be performed after the exposure of the resist, which involves baking at about 200 ° F for a period of time that depends on the thickness of the photoresist layer.

The portion of the photoresist exposed to the electron beam may be exposed in a channel pattern. Typically, a portion of the photoresist may be exposed to an energy source and developed to form a pattern of channels. The dimensions of the channel pattern may be selected based on the desired dimensions of calcite channels in the nanofluidic device. For positive resists, development of the resist can remove the exposed portions of the resist. For negative tone resists, development of the resist removes the unexposed portions of the resist. Developing the resist involves dissolving the resist using a solvent and revealing the portion of the substrate surface under the photoresist. In certain embodiments, the solvent is an organic solvent, such as Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether Acetate (PGMEA), ethyl lactate, or diacetone alcohol. The development time depends on the thickness of the photoresist layer. The remaining portion of the photoresist after development forms the inverse pattern of calcite channels (inverse pattern) in the final nanofluidic device. After development, the device may be rinsed with fresh solvent followed by a second wash with another solvent such as isopropanol. The device may then be dried with a gas such as nitrogen. From 104, method 100 proceeds to 106.

At 106, calcite is deposited in the channel pattern using a calcite precursor gas. In certain embodiments, atomic layer deposition is used to deposit calcite. Atomic layer deposition is a technique for depositing materials from a vapor phase and includes a series of alternating introductions of gaseous chemical precursors that react with a substrate. Each gas-surface reaction is called a half-reaction. During each half-reaction, the precursor gas is introduced for a specified amount of time to enable the precursor gas to react sufficiently with the substrate surface and deposit a monolayer at the surface. The device is then purged with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon to remove unreacted precursor, reaction byproducts, or both. The next precursor gas is then introduced to deposit another layer and similarly purged. The process cycles as alternating precursor gases are deposited layer by layer until the desired height is reached. In certain embodiments, the atomic layer deposition process may continue until the calcite layer reaches a height similar to or the same as the original photoresist coating. The deposited calcite may have at least one side having a length in the range of about 50 to 100 nm. From 106, method 100 proceeds to 108.

At 108, the photoresist remaining after the exposed portions of the photoresist are developed at 104 is removed. Removal of the remaining photoresist involves dissolving the photoresist using a solvent, such as the solvent used in developing the resist at 104. The calcite and substrate that remain form the nanofluidic device. After 108, the method 100 stops.

Fig. 2A and 2B show a cross-sectional view and a top view, respectively, of an example nanofluidic device 200. The device 200 includes a TEM holder 202 supporting a silicon substrate 204 and calcite channels 206. The calcite deposit making up the channels 206 may have any shape, such as a cylinder or cube. In addition to changing the calcite deposit shape, the pattern of the calcite channels 206 may also be changed. For example, the channels 206 may have a stacked row (stacked row) pattern in which the center of each calcite deposit is in line with the center of the calcite deposit in the row directly above or in the row directly below, as shown in fig. 2B. In some embodiments, the channels 206 may have an offset row pattern in which the center of each calcite deposit is not in line with the center of any calcite deposit in the row directly above or the row directly below. The straight or curved edges of the calcite deposit and channel pattern may represent a variety of geometries present in native calcite reservoirs. In some embodiments, the calcite channels 206 of the nanofluidic device 200 may have a length in at least one dimension in the range of 50 to 100 nm. For example, the width of each calcite channel 206 may be in the range of 50 to 100 nm.

Still referring to fig. 2A and 2B, the silicon substrate 204 and the calcite channel 206 may be packaged in an enclosure 208 having a window 210 transparent to the electron beam above the calcite channel 206. In some embodiments, the housing 208 may be made of a conductive metal and the window 210 may be made of a conductive material that is also optically transparent, such as silicon nitride (SiN). The conductivity enables the window 210 to avoid charge build up, and the transparency of the window 210 enables viewing. As shown, the housing has an inlet line 212 that enables a fluid, such as a saline solution 214, to enter the nanofluidic device 200 and an outlet line 216 that enables the fluid to exit. As shown in fig. 2A, 2B, and 3, the inlet line 212 and the outlet line 216 may be located on the same side of the device 200. In some embodiments, the inlet line 212 and the outlet line 216 may be located on opposite or adjacent sides of the device 200.

Fig. 3 illustrates an example system 300 for testing the nanofluidic device 200. For example, the system 300 may image the reaction between the calcite channel 206 and the fluid. The nanofluidic device 200 is placed on a sample stage inside TEM chamber 322. The TEM chamber 322 may isolate the device 200 from external interference and may be evacuated, i.e., a vacuum may be created within the chamber. A fluid, such as a saline solution, may be introduced to the device through inlet line 212 via TEM support 328 and the fluid may exit through outlet line 216. As the fluid flows into and out of the device 200, the electron beam gun 320 emits an electron beam to produce a projected image 326 of the calcite channel 206 while interacting with the fluid. The electron beam gun 320, TEM chamber 322, and sample stage may be components of a single apparatus, such as a SEM. In some embodiments, the electron beam gun 320 is the same electron source used for electron beam lithography in fabricating the nanofluidic device 200, such as a modified SEM capable of electron beam lithography.

Calcite reservoirs are generally heterogeneous. Some regions of the reservoir may contain large voids, while other regions may have poor connectivity and low permeability. Acid injection is an enhanced oil recovery method that can improve the connectivity of the reservoir region. The acid injection may include a brine solution 214 having an acid content, such as 10% hydrochloric acid. Acid injection causes carbonate dissolution, and the kinetics of formation dissolution due to acid flow at the pore and atomic scales may determine the net flow behavior. The dynamics may also determine other reservoir characteristics such as the likelihood of leakoff, hydrocarbon production, and storage capacity. As the brine solution 214 flows through the nanofluidic device 200, SEM can be used to observe calcite dissolution and preferential flow of brine at the nanoscale in the device 200. The observations can then be used to quantify acid dissolution of carbonates and predict the migration of brine through aquifers such as calcite formations.

FIG. 4 is a diagram of one example of an image 400 generated by the system 300. The locations of the calcite channel 206 and the brine 214 in fig. 4 are based on the locations of the calcite channel 206 and the brine 214 in fig. 2B. A user reviewing the image 400 may learn information about fluid-fluid interactions and fluid-calcite rock interactions at the atomic scale, for example.

FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating an example method 500 for fabricating a SiN substrate. The size and shape of the substrate may be determined, for example, by the sample stage of the SEM. In certain embodiments, nanofluidic devices containing SiN substrates may be packaged, and the size of the substrate may be smaller than the size of the pores in the TEM scaffold. In certain embodiments, substrate preparation may include cleaning of the substrate.

At 502, a top surface of a silicon nitride (SiN) substrate is coated with a photoresist layer. For example, the coating photoresist layer may employ an epoxy-based negative photoresist layer spin-coated on the surface of the SiN substrate. In certain embodiments, the epoxy-based negative photoresist is Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or SU-8. Various parameters may determine the thickness of the applied photoresist layer, such as spin rate, photoresist viscosity, temperature, and other parameters. In some embodiments, the thickness may be equal to the desired height of the calcite channels in the nanofluidic device.

At 504, after the photoresist layer is applied, the photoresist layer is scanned in a predetermined pattern with an electron beam. Forming the channel pattern may involve, for example, exposing a portion of the photoresist to an electron beam from a SEM. The electron beam may be provided, for example, by a scanning electron microscope. A post-exposure bake step may be performed after the exposure of the resist, which includes, for example, baking at about 200 ° F for a period of time that depends on the thickness of the photoresist layer.

At 506, the scanned photoresist is developed to expose portions of the top surface of the SiN substrate in a predetermined pattern. The exposed portions of the photoresist are developed, i.e., removed. Developing the photoresist involves dissolving the photoresist using a solvent such as PGMEA, ethyl lactate, or diacetone alcohol. Developing the photoresist also involves revealing a portion of the substrate surface.

At 508, calcite is deposited in a predetermined pattern using a calcite precursor gas using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). For example, after the pattern is drawn and etched, the etched hollow pattern may be filled with calcite by using ALD using a calcite precursor gas. Calcite is deposited in the channel pattern using a calcite precursor gas using atomic layer deposition. Atomic layer deposition involves the layer-by-layer deposition of calcite. In certain embodiments, the calcite is deposited layer-by-layer until the calcite channel height is similar to or the same as the original height of the coated photoresist at 504.

At 510, the remaining portions of the photoresist layer are removed using a solvent to expose calcite deposited in a predetermined pattern on the top surface of the SiN substrate. The calcite channel structure is deposited on the substrate and the substrate is left behind. The calcite channels formed may have a length in at least one dimension in the range of 50 to 100 nm.

The housing may include: a top portion having a window, a bottom portion that can support the device, an inlet connection that enables fluid to enter the device, and an outlet connection that enables fluid to exit the device. The window may be made of an electrically conductive and optically transparent material, such as SiN, and may be disposed over calcite channels deposited on the substrate. In certain embodiments, the package includes a metal shell around the substrate.

In certain embodiments, the method 500 further comprises steps for injecting a sample, imaging the sample, and removing the sample. The sample may be, for example, a liquid or a liquid containing nanoparticles. A SiN substrate may be inserted into a liquid cell TEM support having an inlet and an outlet. The sample may then be deposited onto the SiN substrate and deposited calcite, and the chip may be sealed to the TEM holder with the window. In certain embodiments, the window comprises an electrically conductive and optically transparent SiN window. The chip can be imaged using TEM while the sample is injected through the inlet, and the sample can be removed through the outlet.

In some embodiments, method 500 may be implemented using one or more computers. For example, a computer may be used to automate a machine or other device to perform some or all of the steps of method 500.

The described implementations of the subject matter may include one or more features, either individually or in combination.

For example, in a first embodiment, a method includes the following steps. A photoresist layer is applied to the top surface of the SiN substrate. After the photoresist layer is coated, the photoresist layer is scanned in a predetermined pattern with an electron beam. The scanned photoresist is developed to expose portions of the top surface of the SiN substrate in a predetermined pattern. Calcite is deposited in a predetermined pattern using ALD using a calcite precursor gas. The remaining portion of the photoresist layer is removed using a solvent to expose calcite deposited in a predetermined pattern on the top surface of the SiN substrate, wherein the width of the deposited calcite is in the range of 50 to 100 nm.

The foregoing and other described embodiments may optionally each include one or more of the following features:

the first feature may be combined with any one of the following features, and the method may further include the following steps. A SiN substrate may be inserted into a liquid cell TEM support having an inlet and an outlet. The samples may be deposited onto a SiN substrate and deposited calcite. The chip can be sealed to the TEM support with a window. The chip can be imaged using TEM while the sample is injected through the inlet and removed through the outlet.

The second feature may be combined with any one of the preceding or following features, wherein the size of the SiN substrate depends on and is smaller than the size of the holes in the TEM support.

The third feature may be combined with any one of the preceding or following features, wherein the coating photoresist layer employs an epoxy-based negative photoresist layer spin-coated on a surface of the SiN substrate.

A fourth feature that can be combined with any one of the preceding or following features, wherein the epoxy-based negative photoresist is Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or SU-8.

The fifth feature may be combined with any one of the preceding or following features, wherein the sample is a liquid or a liquid containing nanoparticles.

A sixth feature that may be combined with any one of the preceding or following features, wherein the solvent comprises Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether Acetate (PGMEA), ethyl lactate, or diacetone alcohol.

The seventh feature may be combined with any one of the preceding or following features, wherein the window comprises an electrically conductive and optically transparent SiN window.

In a second embodiment, a system includes a nanofluidic device, a housing for the device; and an electron source for providing an electron beam. The device comprises: including the bottom of the substrate and the top including the calcite channel structure. The calcite channel structure includes at least one side having a length in the range of about 50 to 100 nanometers.

The foregoing and other described embodiments may optionally each include one or more of the following features:

the first feature may be combined with any one of the features below, wherein the substrate is silicon.

The second feature may be combined with any one of the features in which the electron source is a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

The third feature may be combined with any one of the following features, wherein the housing comprises: a top including a window; a bottom configured to support a device; an inlet line configured to enable fluid to enter the device; and an outlet line configured to enable fluid to exit the device.

The fourth feature may be combined with any one of the following features, wherein the window comprises an electrically conductive and optically transparent material.

The fifth feature may be combined with any one of the following features, wherein the electrically conductive and optically transparent material comprises silicon nitride (SiN).

While this specification contains many specific implementation details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any implementation or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular implementations. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Furthermore, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.

Specific embodiments of the subject matter have been described. Other implementations, modifications, and substitutions of the described implementations are within the scope of the following claims, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Although operations are depicted in the drawings or claims in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed (some operations may be considered optional) to achieve desirable results.

Moreover, the separation or integration of various system modules and components in the embodiments previously described should not be understood as requiring such separation or integration in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems can generally be integrated together in a single software product or packaged into multiple software products.

Accordingly, the example embodiments described previously do not define or constrain this disclosure. Other changes, substitutions, and alterations are also possible without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure.